TECHNIQUES WITHOUT USING EMISSION CONTROL

DEVICES

Process Change

Wind, Geothermal, Hydroelectric, or Solar Unit instead of Fossil fired

Unit.

Change in Fuel
e.g. Use of Low Sulfur Fuel, instead of High Sulfur fuel.

Good Operating Practices

Good Housekeeping

Maintenance

Plant Shutdown

COMMONLY USED METHODS FOR AIR POLLUTION

CONTROL
PARTICULATE

Cyclones
Electrostatic Precipitators
Fabric Filter
Wet Scrubbers

GASES

Adsorption Towers

Thermal Incernation

Catalytic Combustion

SOx CONTROL

GENERAL METHODS FOR CONTROL OF SO2 EMISSIONS

Change to Low Sulfur Fuel

Natural Gas

Liquefied Natural Gas

Low Sulfur Oil

Low Sulfur Coal

Use Desulfurized Coal and Oil Increase Effective Stack Height

Build Tall Stacks

Redistribution of Stack Gas Velocity Profile

Modification of Plume Buoyancy

GENERAL METHODS FOR CONTROL OF SO2

EMISSIONS (contd.)

Use Flue Gas Desulfurization Systems

Use Alternative Energy Sources, such as Hydro-Power
or Nuclear-Power

FLUE GAS DESULFURIZATION

SO2 scrubbing, or Flue Gas Desulfurization processes can be classified as:

Throwaway or Regenerative, depending upon whether the recovered

sulfur is discarded or recycled.
Wet or Dry, depending upon whether the scrubber is a liquid or a solid.

Flue Gas Desulfurization Processes

The major flue gas desulfurization ( FGD ), processes are :

Limestone Scrubbing

Lime Scrubbing

Dual Alkali Processes

Lime Spray Drying

Wellman-Lord Process

LIMESTONE SCRUBBING
Limestone slurry is sprayed on the incoming flue gas. The sulfur
dioxide gets absorbed The limestone and the sulfur dioxide react as
follows

CaCO3 + H2O + 2SO2 ----> Ca+2 + 2HSO3-+ CO2

CaCO3 + 2HSO3-+ Ca+2 ----> 2CaSO3 + CO2 + H2O

LIME SCRUBBING
The equipment and the processes are similar to those in limestone
scrubbing Lime Scrubbing offers better utilization of the reagent. The
operation is more flexible. The major disadvantage is the high cost of
lime compared to limestone.
The reactions occurring during lime scrubbing are :

CaO + H2O -----> Ca(OH)2

SO2 + H2O <----> H2SO3
H2SO3 + Ca(OH)2 -----> CaSO3.2 H2O
CaSO3.2 H2O + (1/2)O2 -----> CaSO4.2 H2O

DUAL ALKALI SYSTEM

Lime and Limestone scrubbing lead to deposits inside spray tower.

The deposits can lead to plugging of the nozzles through which the
scrubbing slurry is sprayed.

The Dual Alkali system uses two regents to remove the sulfur
dioxide.

Sodium sulfite / Sodium hydroxide are used for the absorption of

sulfur dioxide inside the spray chamber.

The resulting sodium salts are soluble in water,so no deposits are

formed.

The spray water is treated with lime or limestone, along with

make-up sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate.

The sulfite / sulfate ions are precipitated, and the sodium

hydroxide is regenerated.

LIME - SPRAY DRYING

Lime Slurry is sprayed into the chamber

The sulfur dioxide is absorbed by the slurry

The liquid-to-gas ratio is maintained such that the spray dries before it
reaches the bottom of the chamber

The dry solids are carried out with the gas, and are collected in fabric
filtration unit

This system needs lower maintenance, lower capital costs, and lower
energy usage

WELLMAN - LORD PROCESS

This process consists of the following subprocesses:

Flue gas pre-treatment.

Sulfur dioxide absorption by sodium sulfite

Purge treatment

Sodium sulfite regeneration.

The concentrated sulfur dioxide stream is processed to a

marketable product.

The flue gas is pre - treated to remove the particulate. The sodium
sulfite neutralizes the sulfur dioxide :

Na2SO3 + SO2 + H2O -----> 2NaHSO3

WELLMAN - LORD PROCESS (contd.)

Some of the Na2SO3 reacts with O2 and the SO3 present in the flue gas
to form Na2SO4 and NaHSO3.

Sodium sulfate does not help in the removal of sulfur dioxide, and is
removed. Part of the bisulfate stream is chilled to precipitate the
remaining bisulfate. The remaining bisulfate stream is evaporated to
release the sulfur dioxide, and regenerate the bisulfite.

NOx CONTROL

BACKGROUND ON NITROGEN OXIDES

There are seven known oxides of nitrogen :

NO

NO2

NO3

N2O

N2O3

N2O4

N2O5

NO and NO2 are the most common of the seven oxides listed above.
NOx released from stationary sources is of two types

GENERAL METHODS FOR CONTROL OF NOx

EMISSIONS

NOx control can be achieved by:

Fuel Denitrogenation

Combustion Modification

Modification of operating conditions

Tail-end control equipment

Selective Catalytic Reduction

Selective Non - Catalytic Reduction

Electron Beam Radiation

Staged Combustion

FUEL DENITROGENATION

One approach of fuel denitrogenation is to remove a large part of

the nitrogen contained in the fuels. Nitrogen is removed from
liquid fuels by mixing the fuels with hydrogen gas, heating the
mixture and using a catalyst to cause nitrogen in the fuel and
gaseous hydrogen to unite. This produces ammonia and cleaner
fuel.

This technology can reduce the nitrogen contained in both

naturally occurring and synthetic fuels.

COMBUSTION MODIFICATION

Combustion control uses one of the following strategies:

Reduce peak temperatures of the flame zone. The methods are :

increase the rate of flame cooling

decrease the adiabatic flame temperature by dilution

Reduce residence time in the flame zone. For this we,

change the shape of the flame zone

Reduce Oxygen concentration in the flame one. This can be

accomplished by:

decreasing the excess air

controlled mixing of fuel and air

using a fuel rich primary flame zone

MODIFICATION OF OPERATING CONDITIONS

The operating conditions can be modified to achieve significant
reductions in the rate of thermal NOx production. the various methods
are:

Low-excess firing

Off-stoichiometric combustion ( staged combustion )

Flue gas recirculation

Reduced air preheat

Reduced firing rates

Water Injection

TAIL-END CONTROL PROCESSES

Combustion modification and modification of operating conditions

provide significant reductions in NOx, but not enough to meet
regulations.

For further reduction in emissions, tail-end control equipment is

required.

Some of the control processes are:

Selective Catalytic Reduction

Selective Non-catalytic Reduction

Electron Beam Radiation

Staged Combustion

SELECTIVE CATALYTIC REDUCTION ( SCR )

In this process, the nitrogen oxides in the flue gases are reduced to
nitrogen

During this process, only the NOx species are reduced

NH3 is used as a reducing gas

The catalyst is a combination of titanium and vanadium oxides. The

reactions are given below :

4 NO + 4 NH3 + O2 -----> 4N2 + 6H2O

2NO2 + 4 NH3+ O2 -----> 3N2 + 6H2O

Selective catalytic reduction catalyst is best at around 300 too 400 oC.

Typical efficiencies are around 80 %

ELECTRON BEAM RADIATION

This treatment process is under development, and is not widely used. Work
is underway to determine the feasibility of electron beam radiation for
neutralizing hazardous wastes and air toxics.

Irradiation of flue gases containing NOx or SOx produce nitrate

and sulfate ions.

The addition of water and ammonia produces NH 4NO3, and

(NH4)2SO4

The solids are removed from the gas, and are sold as fertilizers.

STAGED COMBUSTION

PRINCIPLE

Initially, less air is supplied to bring about incomplete combustion

Nitrogen is not oxidized. Carbon particles and CO are released.

In the second stage, more air is supplied to complete the

combustion of carbon and carbon monoxide.

30% to 50% reductions in NOx emissions are achieved.

CARBON MONOXIDE
CONTROL

GENERAL METHODS FOR CONTROL OF CO EMISSIONS

Control carbon monoxide formation.

Note : CO & NOx control strategies are in conflict.

Stationary Sources

Proper Design

Installation

Operation

Maintenance

Process Industries

Burn in furnaces or waste heat boilers.

FORMATION OF CARBON MONOXIDE

Due to insufficient oxygen

Factors affecting Carbon monoxide formation:

fuel-air ratio

degree of mixing

temperature

PARTICULATE MATTER
CONTROL

GENERAL METHODS FOR CONTROL OF

PARTICULATE EMISSIONS
Five Basic Types of Dust Collectors :
Gravity and Momentum collectors

settling chambers, louvers, baffle chambers

Centrifugal Collectors

cyclones

mechanical centrifugal collectors

Fabric Filters

baghouses

fabric collectors

GENERAL METHODS FOR CONTROL OF

PARTICULATE EMISSIONS (contd.)
Electrostatic Precipitators

tubular
plate
wet
dry

Wet Collectors

spray towers
impingement scrubbers
wet cyclones
peaked towers
mobile bed scrubbers

PARTICULATE COLLECTION MECHANISM

Gravity Settling

Centrifugal Impaction

Inertial Impaction

Direct Interception

Diffusion

Electrostatic Effects

INDUSTRIAL SOURCES OF PARTICULATE EMISSIONS

Iron & Steel Mills, the blast furnaces, steel making furnaces.

Petroleum Refineries, the catalyst regenerators, air-blown asphalt

stills, and sludge burners.

Portland cement industry

Asphalt batching plants

Production of sulfuric acid

Production of phosphoric acid

Soap and Synthetic detergent manufacturing

Glass & glass fiber industry

Instant coffee plants

EFFECTS OF PARTICULATE EMISSIONS

Primary Effects

Reduction of visibility

size distribution and refractive index of the particles

direct absorption of light by particles
direct light scattering by particles
150 micro g / m3 concentration ~ average visibility of 5 miles
( satisfactory for air and ground transportation )

Soiling of nuisance

increase cost of building maintenance, cleaning of furnishings, and

households
threshold limit is 200 - 250 micro g / m3 ( dust )
levels of 400 - 500 micro g / m3 considered as nuisance

CYCLONES
Principle

The particles are removed by the application of a centrifugal force.

The polluted gas stream is forced into a vortex. the motion of the gas
exerts a centrifugal force on the particles, and they get deposited on
the inner surface of the cyclones

Construction and Operation

The gas enters through the inlet, and is forced into a spiral.

At the bottom, the gas reverses direction and flows upwards.

To prevent particles in the incoming stream from contaminating the

clean gas, a vortex finder is provided to separate them. the cleaned
gas flows out through the vortex finder.

CYCLONES (contd.)
Advantages of Cyclones

Cyclones have a lost capital cost

Reasonable high efficiency for specially designed cyclones.

They can be used under almost any operating condition.

Cyclones can be constructed of a wide variety of materials.

There are no moving parts, so there are no maintenance

requirements.

Disadvantages of Cyclones

They can be used for small particles

High pressure drops contribute to increased costs of operation.

FABRIC FILTERS
Principle

The filters retain particles larger than the mesh size

Air and most of the smaller particles flow through. Some of the smaller
particles are retained due to interception and diffusion.
The retained particles cause a reduction in the mesh size.
The primary collection is on the layer of previously deposited particles

Advantages of Fabric Filters

Very high collection efficiency

They can operate over a wide range of volumetric flow rates
The pressure drops are reasonably low.
Fabric Filter houses are modular in design, and can be pre-assembled
at the factory

FABRIC FILTERS (contd.)

Disadvantages of Fabric Filters

Fabric Filters require a large floor area.

The fabric is damaged at high temperature.

Ordinary fabrics cannot handle corrosive gases.

Fabric Filters cannot handle moist gas streams

A fabric filtration unit is a potential fire hazard

ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR
Principle

The particles in a polluted gas stream are charged by passing them through an electric
field.
The charged particles are led through collector plates
The collector plates carry charges opposite to that on the particles
The particles are attracted to these collector plates and are thus removed from the gas
steam

Construction and Operation of Electrostatic Precipitator

Charging Electrodes in the form of thin wires are placed in the path of the influent gas.
The charging electrodes generate a strong electric field, which charges the particles as
they flow through it.

The collector plates get deposited with the particles. the particles are occasionally

removed either by rapping or by washing the collector plates.

ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR (contd.)

Advantages of Electrostatic Precipitators

Electrostatic precipitators are capable very high efficiency, generally of

the order of 99.5-99.9%.
Since the electrostatic precipitators act on the particles and not on the
air, they can handle higher loads with lower pressure drops.
They can operate at higher temperatures.
The operating costs are generally low.

Disadvantages of Electrostatic Precipitators

The initial capital costs are high.

Although they can be designed for a variety of operating conditions,
they are not very flexible to changes in the operating conditions, once
installed.
Particulate with high resistivity may go uncollected .

WET SCRUBBERS
Principle

Wet scrubbers are used for removal of particles which have a diameter
of the order of 0.2 mm or higher.
Wet scrubbers work by spraying a stream of fine liquid droplets on the
incoming stream.
The droplets capture the particles
The liquid is subsequently removed for treatment.

Construction and Operation

A wet scrubber consists of a rectangular or circular chamber in which

nozzles are mounted.
The nozzles spray a stream of droplets on the incoming gas stream
The droplets contact the particulate matter, and the particles get sorbed.
The droplet size has to be optimized.

WET SCRUBBERS (contd.)

Construction and Operation (contd.)

Smaller droplets provide better cleaning, but are more difficult to

remove from the cleaned stream.

The polluted spray is collected.

Particles are settled out or otherwise removed from the liquid.

The liquid is recycled.

Wet scrubbers are also used for the removal of gases from the air
streams.

WET SCRUBBERS (contd.)

Advantages of Wet Scrubbers

Wet Scrubbers can handle incoming streams at high temperature,

thus removing the need for temperature control equipment.
Wet scrubbers can handle high particle loading.

Loading fluctuations do not affect the removal efficiency.

They can handle explosive gases with little risk.

Gas adsorption and dust collection are handled in one unit.

Corrosive gases and dusts are neutralized.

Disadvantages of Wet Scrubbers

High potential for corrosive problems

Effluent scrubbing liquid poses a water pollution problem.

CYCLONE SPRAY CHAMBERS

These scrubbers combine a cyclone with a spray nozzle.

The added centrifugal force permits good separation of the

droplets, hence a smaller droplet size can be used.

Cyclone spray chambers provide up to 95% removal of particles >

5 micron.

ORIFICE SCRUBBERS

The gas is impacted onto a layer of the scrubbing liquid.

The gas passes through the liquid, thus removing almost all the
particulate matter, and a large portion of the probable gases.

After coming out of the liquid, the gas is passed through baffles to
remove the liquid droplets.

IMPINGEMENT SCRUBBERS

In Impingement scrubbers, the gas impacts a layer of liquid/froth

through a perforated tray.

Passing through this layer removes the particulate matter.

The wet gas stream is then passed through a mist collector.

VENTURI SCRUBBERS

The dirty gas is led in to the chamber at high inlet velocities.

At the inlet throat, liquid at low pressure is added to the gas stream

This increases the relative velocity between the gas and the
droplets, thus increasing the efficiency of removal.

Efficiencies of the range of 95% for particles larger than 0.2 mm

have been obtained.

HYDROCARBON CONTROL

GENERAL METHODS FOR CONTROL OF

HYDROCARBON EMISSIONS
Incineration or after burning

Direct flame incineration

Thermal incineration

Catalytic incineration

VOC INCINERATORS
Principle

VOC incinerators thermally oxidize the effluent stream, in the

presence of excess air.

The complete oxidation of the VOC results in the formation of

carbon monoxide and water. The reaction proceeds as follows:

CxHy + ( x + y/4 ) O2 x CO2 + (y/2) H2O

Operation
The most important parameters in the design and operation of an
incineration system are what are called the
' three T's ' Temperature, Turbulence, and residence Time.

VOC INCINERATORS (contd.)

Temperature

The reaction kinetics are very sensitive to temperature

The higher the temperature, the faster the reaction

Timing

A certain time has to be provided for the reaction to proceed

Turbulence

Turbulence promotes mixing between the VOC's and oxygen

Proper mixing helps the reaction to proceed to completion in the given time .

VOC INCINERATORS (contd.)

The various methods for incineration are:

Elevated fires, for concentrated streams

Direct thermal oxidation, for dilute streams

Catalytic oxidation, for dilute streams.

GASES

AIR POLLUTION CONTROL FOR GASES

Adsorption Towers

Thermal Incernation

Catalytic Combustion

ADSORPTION TOWERS
Principle

Adsorption towers use adsorbents to remove the impurities from

the gas stream.

The impurities bind either physically or chemically to the

adsorbing material.

The impurities can be recovered by regenerating the adsorbent.

Adsorption towers can remove low concentrations of impurities

from the flue gas stream.

ADSORPTION TOWERS (contd.)

Construction and Operation

Adsorption towers consist of cylinders packed with the adsorbent.

The adsorbent is supported on a heavy screen
Since adsorption is temperature dependent, the flue gas is
temperature conditioned.
Vapor monitors are provided to detect for large concentrations in the
effluent. Large concentrations of the pollutant in the effluent
indicate that the adsorbent needs to be regenerated.

Advantages of Adsorption Towers

Very low concentrations of pollutants can be removed.

Energy consumption is low.
Do not need much maintenance.
Economically valuable material can be recovered during
regeneration.

ADSORPTION TOWERS (contd.)

Disadvantages of adsorption Towers

Operation is not continuous.

They can only be used for specific pollutants.

Extensive temperature pre-conditioning equipment to be installed.

Despite regeneration, the capacity of the adsorbent decreases with

use.