Chapter 9, Molecular Structure of DNA and RNA

LECTURE 1
Introduction to
DNA and RNA
(Chapter 09)
Slides 1-25; 35-48; 54-57
On your own:
Slides 26-34; 49-53; 58-62
1
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
INTRODUCTION
Genetics: Study of the structure, function,
transmission of genes
Only living organisms have genes
To understand genetics, we will start with the
question: What is Life?
Characteristics shared by all living forms but not by
non-living forms
What is the role of DNA in life?

DNA carries information
Information, entropy and Solla Sollew
Duhka (A wheel out of kilter)
I Had Trouble in Getting to Solla Sollew (where there arent any
problems at least very few)
UNIVERSE
LIFE (GENES)
(entropy)
(negative entropy)
How does life fight entropy?

Living organisms suck energy (directly or
indirectly) from the Sun
If no life, medium =
medium radiation
energy, medium
entropy
If life, long = low

radiation energy
high entropy
Short mean = high

radiation energy, low
entropy
Very high
potential energy;
Very low entropy
4
Fusion reactions in suns core

Hydrogen to helium with release of photons
Mass converted to energy (E = mc2)

600 million tons hydrogen fused to helium per second
Creates 596 tons helium per second + 3.9 x 10 26 Joules of energy
Life borrows this energy to build complex, highly ordered structures
The source of all lifes problems is entropy

The solution is stored as information in DNA
Information and negative entropy
Analog vs digital
Different organisms have different genes;

different strategies for the survival of the genes
and their transmission to the next generation
Those genes that built the best survival
machines are still with us today
The vast majority of genes were lost
This is a blind, undirected process
6
MOLECULAR GENETICS
Chapter 9 examines the genetic material in detail:
molecular genetics
The study of DNA structure and function at the
molecular level
Recent dramatic advances in techniques and

approaches have greatly expanded our
understanding of molecular genetics
And also of transmission and population genetics
To a large extent, our knowledge of genetics

comes from our knowledge of the molecular
structure of DNA and RNA
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display
9.1 IDENTIFICATION OF DNA AS

THE GENETIC MATERIAL
To fulfill its role, the genetic material must meet
several criteria
1. Information: It must contain the information necessary
to make an entire organism
2. Transmission: It must be passed from parent to
offspring
3. Replication: It must be copied
In order to be passed from parent to offspring
4. Variation: It must be capable of changes

To account for the known phenotypic variation in each species
9.1 IDENTIFICATION OF DNA AS

THE GENETIC MATERIAL
The data of many geneticists, including
Mendel, were consistent with these four
properties
However, the chemical nature of the genetic material
cannot be identified solely by genetic crosses
Indeed, the identification of DNA as the genetic

material involved a series of outstanding
experimental approaches
These will be examined next
Frederick Griffith Experiments with

Streptococcus pneumoniae
Griffith studied a bacterium (pneumococci) now
known as Streptococcus pneumoniae
S. pneumoniae comes in two strains
S Smooth
Secrete a polysaccharide capsule
Protects bacterium from the immune system of animals
Produce smooth colonies on solid media
R Rough
Unable to secrete a capsule
Produce colonies with a rough appearance
10
In 1928, Griffith conducted experiments using two

strains of S. pneumoniae: type IIIS and type IIR
1. Inject mouse with live type IIIS bacteria
2. Inject mouse with live type IIR bacteria
Mouse survived
No living bacteria isolated from the mouses blood
3. Inject mouse with heat-killed type IIIS bacteria
Mouse died
Type IIIS bacteria recovered from the mouses blood
Mouse survived
No living bacteria isolated from the mouses blood
4. Inject mouse with live type IIR + heat-killed type IIIS cells
Mouse died
Type IIIS bacteria recovered from the mouses blood
11
Living type S bacteria were

injected into a mouse.
Living type R bacteria were

injected into a mouse.
Heat-killed type S bacteria

were injected into a mouse.
Living type R and heat-killed

type S bacteria were injected
into a mouse.
Live
type R
Dead
type S
After
several
days
Mouse died
After
several
days
Mouse survived
After
several
days
Mouse survived
After
several
days
Mouse died
Type S bacteria were isolated

from the dead mouse.
No living bacteria were isolated

from the mouse.
No living bacteria were isolated

from the mouse.
Type S bacteria were isolated

from the dead mouse.
(a) Live type S
(b) Live type R
(c) Dead type S
(d) Live type R + dead type S
Figure 9.1
12
Griffith concluded that something from the dead

type IIIS bacteria was transforming type IIR
bacteria into type IIIS
He called this process transformation
The substance that allowed this to happen was

termed the transformation principle
Griffith did not know what it was

Suggested that the genetic information molecule is
resistant to high temperature
Most proteins degrade at high temperature
Connect Griffiths experiment to Experiment 1 (lab)
13
We now know that the formation of the capsule is

guided by the bacterias genetic material
Transformed R bacteria acquired a gene from the dead

lysed S bacterua that directs the cell how to make a
capsule polysachharide
Variation exists in ability to make capsule (R cells carry a
non-function allele for the gene)
The gene required to create a capsule is replicated and
transmitted from mother to daughter cells
Once R cells acquired it they passed the trait to their
offspring
The molecular nature of the transforming principle

was determined using experimental approaches
that incorporated various biochemical techniques
14
The Experiments of
Avery, MacLeod and McCarty
Avery, MacLeod and McCarty realized that Griffiths
observations could be used to identify the genetic material
They carried out their experiments in the 1940s
At that time, it was known that DNA, RNA, proteins and
carbohydrates are the major constituents of living cells
They prepared cell extracts from type IIIS cells and purified
each type of macromolecule
Only the extract that contained purified DNA was able to convert
type IIR bacteria into type IIIS
Treatment of the DNA extract with RNase or protease did not
eliminate transformation
Treatment with DNase did
15
Figure 9.2
Avery et al. conducted the following experiments
To further verify that DNA, and not a contaminant (RNA

or protein), is the genetic material
Type R
cells
Type S
DNA
extract
Type R
cells
Mix
Type S
DNA
extract
+
DNase
Type R
cells
Mix
Type S
DNA
extract
+
RNase
Type R
cells
Mix
Type R
cells
Type S
DNA
extract
+
protease
Mix
Allow sufficient time for the DNA to be taken up by the type R bacteria. Only a small percentage of the type R bacteria will be transformed to type S.
Add an antibody that aggregates type R bacteria (that have not been transformed). The aggregated bacteria are removed by gentle centrifugation.
Plate the remaining bacteria on petri plates. Incubate overnight.
Transformed
Transformed
Transformed
16
Experiment 9A Hershey and Chase

Experiment with Bacteriophage T2
In 1952, Alfred Hershey and Marsha Chase
provided further evidence that DNA is the genetic
material
They studied the

bacteriophage T2
Figure 9.3
It is relatively simple
since its composed of
only two
macromolecules
DNA and protein
DNA
(inside the
capsid head)
Inside the
capsid
Head
Sheath
Made up
of protein
Tail fiber
Base plate
17
Phage binds to host cell.
Capsid
Genetic material
Bacterial
cell wall
Bacterial
chromosome
Phage injects its

DNA into host cell.
Figure 9.4
Phage coat (protein)

precariously attached
to bacterial cell
The expression of
phage genes leads
to the synthesis of
phage components.
Life cycle of
bacteriophage T2
DNA inside of cell

Phage components
are assembled.
Host cell lyses

and new phages
are released.
18
The Hershey and Chase experiment can be

summarized as follows:
Used radioisotopes to distinguish DNA from proteins
32P labels DNA specifically
35S labels protein specifically
Radioactively-labeled phages were used to infect
non-radioactive Escherichia coli cells
After allowing sufficient time for infection to proceed,
the residual phage particles were sheared off the cells
=> Phage ghosts and E. coli cells were separated
Radioactivity was monitored using a scintillation
counter
19
9-14
The Hypothesis
Only the genetic material of the phage is injected
into the bacterium
Isotope labeling will reveal if it is DNA or protein
Testing the Hypothesis
Refer to Figure 9.5
20
Experimental level
Conceptual level
1.Grow bacterial cells. Divide into
two flasks.
Suspension of
E. coli cells
S-labeled
protein capsid
35
P-labeled
DNA
32
2.Into one flask, add 35S-labeled phage; in

the second flask, add 32P-labeled phage.
S-labeled
T2 phage
35
P-labeled
T2 phage
32
3.Allow infection to occur.

After blending
4.Agitate solutions in blenders for
different lengths of time to shear the
empty phages off the bacterial cells.
Suspension of Suspension of
E. coli infected with
E. coli infected with
35
S-labeled phage32P-labeled phage
5.Centrifuge at 10,000 rpm.
Supernatant
6.The heavy bacterial cells sedimentwith
to the
35
pellet, while the lighter phages remain
in
S-labeled
the supernatant. (See Appendix for
empty phage
explanation of centrifugation.)
Pellet with
unlabeled
DNA in
infected
E. coli cells
7.Count the amount of radioisotope in
the supernatant with a Geiger counter.
Compare it with the starting amount.
Figure 9.5
Supernatant
with
unlabeled
empty phage
Pellet with
32
P-labeled
DNA in
infected
E. coli cells
Bacterial cell
Viral genetic
material
Sheared empty
phage (labeled)
Bacterial
cell
Viral
genetic
material
(labeled)
Sheared
empty
phage
Sheared empty
phages (labeled)
Sheared
empty
phages
(unlabeled)
21
The Data
Total isotope in supernatant (%)
100
80
Extracellular 35S
80%
Blending removes 80%
of 35S from E. coli cells.
Extracellular 32P
35%
Most of the 32P (65%)
remains with intact
E. coli cells.
60
40
20
0
Agitation time in blender (min)

Data from A. D. Hershey and Martha Chase (1952) Independent Functions of Viral Protein and Nucleic Acid in Growth of
Bacteriophage. Journal of General Physiology 36, 3956.
22
Interpreting the Data
Most of the 35S was found

in the supernatant
But only a small

percentage of 32P
Total isotope in supernatant (%)
100
80
Extracellular 35S
80%
Blending removes 80%
of 35S from E. coli cells.
Extracellular 32P
35%
Most of the 32P (65%)
remains with intact
E. coli cells.
60
40
20
0
Agitation time in blender (min)

Data from A. D. Hershey and Martha Chase (1952) Independent Functions of Viral Protein and Nucleic Acid in Growth of
Bacteriophage. Journal of General Physiology 36, 3956.
These results suggest that DNA is injected into the bacterial cytoplasm
during infection
Data is not conclusive since less than 100% of the DNA or protein
ended up in the cell or supernatant
Data is consistent with the hypothesis that DNA is the genetic
material
23
9-18
RNA Functions as the Genetic Material

in Some Viruses
In 1956, A. Gierer and G. Schramm isolated RNA

from the tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), a plant virus
Purified RNA caused the same lesions as intact TMV

viruses
Therefore, the viral genome is composed of RNA
Since that time, many RNA viruses have been

found
Refer to Table 9.1
24
25
9.2 NUCLEIC ACID

STRUCTURE On Your Own
DNA and RNA are large macromolecules with
several levels of complexity
1. Nucleotides form the repeating unit of nucleic acids
2. Nucleotides are linked to form a linear strand of
RNA or DNA
3. Two strands can interact to form a double helix
4. The 3-D structure of DNA results from folding and
bending of the double helix. Interaction of DNA with
proteins produces chromosomes within living cells
Refer to fig. 9.6
26
Nucleotides
A
TC
AA
TC
AA
TC
AAT
Single strand
C
G
C A
T GT
T A
A
G T
A C
GA
T
C A
T GT
T A
A
Double helix
Figure 9.6
Three-dimensional structure
27
Nucleotides
The nucleotide is the repeating structural unit of

DNA and RNA
It has three components
A phosphate group
A pentose sugar
A nitrogenous base
Refer to Figure 9.7

28
Bases
Phosphate group
Sugars
5
HOCH2
4
O
CH3
1N
D-Deoxyribose (in DNA)
H
3
HO
OH
D-Ribose (in RNA)
N
H
3N
2
Adenine (A)
OH
1N
4
1
3N
2
Uracil (U) (in RNA)
NH 2
H
NH2
Thymine (T) (in DNA)
HOCH2
Figure 9.7
HO
O
Pyrimidines
(single ring)
NH2
OH
Purines
(double ring)
5
6
4
1
3N
2
H
Guanine (G)
Cytosine (C)
29
9-24
These atoms are found within individual nucleotides
However, they are removed when nucleotides join together to make

strands of DNA or RNA
A, G, C or T
A, G, C or U
O
O P
Base
O
O
Phosphate
CH2
5
4
H
3
H
2
OH
H
Deoxyribose
(a) Repeating unit of

deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA)
Figure 9.8
Base
O
O
Phosphate
CH2
H
3
O
H
2
OH
OH
Ribose
(b) Repeating unit of

ribonucleic acid (RNA)
The structure of nucleotides found in (a) DNA and (b) RNA

30
Base + sugar nucleoside
Base + sugar + phosphate(s) nucleotide
Example
Adenine + ribose = Adenosine
Adenine + deoxyribose = Deoxyadenosine
Example
Adenosine monophosphate (AMP)
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Refer to Figure 9.9

31
Adenosine triphosphate
Adenosine diphosphate
Adenosine monophosphate
Adenosine
Adenine
Phosphoester bond
NH2
H
O
O
P
O
O
O
O
O
N
O
Phosphate groups
Phosphates are
attached here
Figure 9.9
CH2
5
4
HO
Ribose
N
Base always
attached here
OH
32
Nucleotides are covalently linked together by

phosphodiester bonds
Therefore the strand has directionality
A phosphate connects the 5 carbon of one nucleotide to

the 3 carbon of another
5 to 3
In a strand, all sugar molecules are oriented in the same
direction
The phosphates and sugar molecules form the

backbone of the nucleic acid strand
The bases project from the backbone

33
Backbone
Bases
O
CH3
H
O
O
CH2
5
4
H
H
O
1
H
2
H
H
Phosphodiester
linkage
Thymine (T)
NH2
N
H
N
O
O
CH2
5
4
H
H
1
H
2
H
H
NH2
H
O
P
Adenine (A)
CH2
5
4
H
H
Cytosine (C)
O
O
1
H
2
H
H
Guanine (G)
O
N
H
N
Single
nucleotide
CH2
5
O
4
H
Phosphate H
3
OH
Figure 9.10
NH2
O
1
H
2
H
H
Sugar (deoxyribose)
34
A Few Key Events Led to the Discovery of

the Structure of DNA
In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick elucidated

the double helical structure of DNA
The scientific framework for their breakthrough was

provided by other scientists including
Linus Pauling
Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins
Erwin Chargaff
35
Linus Pauling
In the early 1950s, he

proposed that regions of
protein can fold into a
secondary structure
-helix
N C C
O
N
HO
O N
H
N
C
H
N
C
Carbonyl
oxygen
Amide
hydrogen
O N
To elucidate this structure,

he built ball-and-stick
models
O
Hydrogen
bond
C
H
O
N
N
C
Figure 9.11
(a) An helix in a protein

36
Rosalind Franklin
She worked in the

same laboratory as
Maurice Wilkins
She used X-ray
diffraction to study
wet fibers of DNA
X rays diffracted
by DNA
Wet DNA fibers
X-ray beam
The pattern represents the

atomic array in wet fibers.
(b) X-ray diffraction of wet DNA fibers
Figure 9.12b
The diffraction pattern is interpreted

(using mathematical theory)
This can ultimately provide
information concerning the
structure of the molecule
37
Rosalind Franklin
She made marked advances in X-ray diffraction

techniques with DNA
The diffraction pattern she obtained suggested

several structural features of DNA
Helical
More than one strand
10 base pairs per complete turn
38
Erwin Chargaffs Experiment
Chargaff pioneered many of the biochemical

techniques for the isolation, purification and
measurement of nucleic acids from living cells
It was known that DNA contained the four bases:

A, G, C and T
Chargaff analyzed the base composition of DNA

isolated from many different species
39
The Hypothesis
An analysis of the base composition of DNA in
different species may reveal important features
about the structure of DNA
Testing the Hypothesis
Refer to Figure 9.13
40
y
Conceptual level
Experimental level
Solution of
1. For each type of cell, extract the
chromosomal
chromosomal material. This can be extract
done in a variety of ways, including the
use of high salt, detergent, or mild alkali
treatment. Note: The chromosomes
contain both DNA and protein.
2. Remove the protein. This can be done in

several ways, including treament with
protease.
3. Hydrolyze the DNA to release the bases

from the DNA strands. A common way
to do this is by strong acid treatment.
DNA +
proteins
Protease
DNA
Acid
4. Separate the bases by chromatography.

Paper chromatography provides an easy
way to separate the four types of bases.
(The technique of chromatography is
described in the Appendix.)
5. Extract bands from paper into solutions
Origin
and determine the amounts of each base
by spectroscopy. Each base will absorb
light at a particular wavelength. By
examining the absorption profile of a
sample of base, it is then possible to
calculate the amount of the base.
(Spectroscopy is described in the
Appendix.)
Figure 9.13
AA A
A A
C
C C C CC C
G
G G GG G
TT
Individual
bases
G
T
6. Compare the base content in the DNA

from different organisms.
41
The Data
42
Interpreting the Data
The data shown in Figure 9.13 are only a small

sampling of Chargaffs results
The compelling observation was that
Percent of adenine = percent of thymine

Percent of cytosine = percent of guanine
This observation became known as Chargaffs rule
It was a crucial piece of evidence that Watson and Crick

used to elucidate the structure of DNA
43
Watson and Crick
Familiar with all of these key observations, Watson

and Crick set out to solve the structure of DNA
They tried to build ball-and-stick models that incorporated

all known experimental observations
A critical question was how the two (or more strands)

would interact
An early hypothesis proposed that DNA strands interact

through phosphate-Mg++ cross-links
44
Base
Base
Sugar
Sugar
O
Base
O
P
O
Sugar
Mg2+
Base
P
O
O
Sugar
Figure 9.14
This hypothesis was, of course, incorrect!

45
Watson and Crick
They went back to the ball-and-stick units

They then built models with the
They first considered a structure in which bases form

H bonds with identical bases in the opposite strand
Sugar-phosphate backbone on the outside

Bases projecting toward each other
ie., A to A, T to T, C to C, and G to G
Model building revealed that this also was incorrect

46
Watson and Crick
They then realized that the hydrogen bonding of A to

T was structurally similar to that of C to G
So they built ball-and-stick models with AT and CG

interactions between the two DNA strands
These were consistent with all known data about DNA structure
Watson, Crick and Maurice Wilkins were awarded

the Nobel Prize in 1962
Rosalind Franklin died in 1958, and Nobel prizes are not

awarded posthumously
47
Barrington Brown/Photo Researchers
(a) Watson and Crick
Figure 9.15
Hulton|Archive by Getty Images
(b) Original model of the DNA double helix
48
The DNA Double Helix

On Your Own
General structural features (Figures 9.16 & 9.17)
Two strands are twisted together around a

common axis
There are 10 bases and 3.4 nm per complete turn
of the helix
The two strands are antiparallel
One runs in the 5 to 3 direction and the other 3 to 5
The helix is right-handed
As it spirals away from you, the helix turns in a

clockwise direction
49
The double-bonded structure is stabilized by
1. Hydrogen bonding between complementary bases
A bonded to T by two hydrogen bonds

C bonded to G by three hydrogen bonds
2. Base stacking
Within the DNA, the bases are oriented so that the flattened
regions are facing each other
50
2 nm
Key Features
5 P 3
S P
P
A S
Two strands of DNA form a

right-handed double helix.
The bases in opposite strands
hydrogen bond according to the
AT/GC rule.
The 2 strands are antiparallel with

regard to their 5 to 3 directionality.
G
G
S
C
P S
There are ~10.0 nucleotides in each

P S
P
strand per complete 360 turn of
S P
the helix.
S
A T S
C
P
P
S
S
T
P
Figure 9.16
C
P
O P
N
O
3 end
HO
HH
H
O
CH2
H
NH2
H
N
P S
O P
CH2
H
H H
N
HH
CH2 O P
N
O
H2N
CH3
O
H
G S
H2N
H H
N
H H
H
O
CH2 O P O
O
H N
O P
One nucleotide
0.34 nm
O
O
CH2
H
H
OH
H2N
N H
NH2
3 end
S
CH2 O P
O
C P
P S
C
P S
PS
P
S C
S
CH2
NH2
G
A
O P O
CH3
O
O
T
A
P
G
S
P
5 end
One complete
turn 3.4 nm
H
N
H H
H
H
CH2 O P
O
5 end
3
51
There are two asymmetrical grooves on the

outside of the helix
1. Major groove
2. Minor groove
Certain proteins can bind within these grooves
They can thus interact with a particular sequence of bases
52
Minor
groove
Minor
groove
Major
groove
Major
groove
Laguna Design/Photo Researchers
(a) Ball-and-stick model of DNA
Figure 9.17
(b) Space-filling model of DNA
53
To calculate how often the enzyme will

cut:
4(# bp in recognition site)
For Eco RI = 46 = cuts every 4,096 bp
Homodimerizes then binds in

successive major grooves to cut
each DNA strand
To calculate number of cuts/genome:

(bp in genome)/4(# bp in recognition site)
Eco RI cuts the human genome:
(3.2 x 109 bp)/4096 cuts/bp = 780,000
cuts
54
The Three-Dimensional Structure of

DNA
To fit within a living cell, the DNA double helix must

be extensively compacted into a 3-D conformation
This is aided by DNA-binding proteins
Refer to 9.20
55
Radial loops
(300 nm in diameter)
Metaphase
chromosome
30 nm fiber
Nucleosomes
(11 nm in diameter)
DNA
(2 nm in diameter)
Histone
protein
DNA wound
around histone
proteins
Each chromatid
(700 nm in diameter)
Figure 9.20
56
57
RNA Structure On Your Own
The primary structure of an RNA strand is much

like that of a DNA strand
Refer to Figure 9.21 vs. 9.10
RNA strands are typically several hundred to

several thousand nucleotides in length
In RNA synthesis, only one of the two strands of

DNA is used as a template
58
Backbone
Bases
O
H
O
O
P
O
5
4
CH2
H
Uracil (U)
O
1
H
2
OH
Phosphodiester
linkage
NH2
N
H
N
O
O
P
O
5
4
CH2
H
Adenine (A)
O
1
H
2
OH
NH2
H
O
O
5
4
CH2
Cytosine (C)
1
H
Guanine
(G)
2
OH
H
N
RNA
nucleotide
Phosphate
Figure 9.21
5
4
CH2
H
NH2
3
OH
Sugar (ribose)
1
H
2
OH
59
Although usually single-stranded, RNA molecules

can form short double-stranded regions
This secondary structure is due to complementary basepairing
This allows short regions to form a double helix
RNA double helices typically
A to U and C to G
Are right-handed
Have the A form with 11 to 12 base pairs per turn
Different types of RNA secondary structures are

possible

60
Complementary regions
Held together by
hydrogen bonds
Figure 9.22
U
U A
A
A U
U A
G C
C G
C G
C
A
A U
(a) Bulge loop
U
G
C G
C G
C
U A
C G
G C A A G
G
C
U U C
A
C
C C G A A
G G
C U U
G C
A U
A U
C G
(c) Multibranched junction
Non-complementary regions
Have bases projecting away
from double stranded regions
C G
G C
A U
A U
C G
C G
(b) Internal loop
C G
A U
U A
A
G
G C
A U
C
U
A
G
G
U
C A
C
G G
A
C C G U
(d) Stem-loop
Also called
hair-pin
61
Double helix
Many factors
contribute to the
tertiary structure of
RNA
5 end
Molecule contains
single- and doublestranded regions
For example
Base-pairing and
base stacking within
the RNA itself
Interactions with
ions, small
molecules and large
proteins
3 end
(acceptor
site)
Double helix
These spontaneously
fold and interact to
produce this 3-D
structure
Anticodon
(a) Ribbon model
Figure 9.23
Figure 9.23 depicts the tertiary structure of tRNAphe
The transfer RNA that carries phenylalanine

62
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Chapter 9, Molecular Structure of DNA and RNA

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Chapter 9, Molecular Structure of DNA and RNA

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What is the role of DNA in life?

What is the role of DNA in life?

How does life fight entropy?

How does life fight entropy?

LECTURE 1

What is the role of DNA in life?

How does life fight entropy?

If life, long = low

Short mean = high

Fusion reactions in suns core

Mass converted to energy (E = mc2)

The source of all lifes problems is entropy

Different organisms have different genes;

Recent dramatic advances in techniques and

To a large extent, our knowledge of genetics

9.1 IDENTIFICATION OF DNA AS

4. Variation: It must be capable of changes

9.1 IDENTIFICATION OF DNA AS

Indeed, the identification of DNA as the genetic

Frederick Griffith Experiments with

Produce smooth colonies on solid media

In 1928, Griffith conducted experiments using two

1. Inject mouse with live type IIIS bacteria

2. Inject mouse with live type IIR bacteria

3. Inject mouse with heat-killed type IIIS bacteria

Living type S bacteria were

Living type R bacteria were

Heat-killed type S bacteria

Living type R and heat-killed

Type S bacteria were isolated

No living bacteria were isolated

No living bacteria were isolated

Type S bacteria were isolated

(a) Live type S

(b) Live type R

(c) Dead type S

(d) Live type R + dead type S

Griffith concluded that something from the dead

He called this process transformation

The substance that allowed this to happen was

Griffith did not know what it was

We now know that the formation of the capsule is

Transformed R bacteria acquired a gene from the dead

The molecular nature of the transforming principle

Avery et al. conducted the following experiments

To further verify that DNA, and not a contaminant (RNA

Experiment 9A Hershey and Chase

They studied the

DNA and protein

Phage injects its

Phage coat (protein)

DNA inside of cell

Host cell lyses

The Hershey and Chase experiment can be

Testing the Hypothesis

Refer to Figure 9.5

2.Into one flask, add 35S-labeled phage; in

3.Allow infection to occur.

Agitation time in blender (min)

Interpreting the Data