Wireless Technology

In This Lecture
Signals for Conveying Information
Analog and Digital Data Transmission

Electromagnetic
Signals
Electromagnetic signals used as a means to transmit
information.
An electromagnetic signal is a function of time, but it can
also be expressed as a function of frequency; that is, the
signal consists of components of different frequencies.
So, there is two important view of a signal.
Time view, Frequency view

Time and Frequency

Views
OFDM signal in time and frequency domain.

>

Time Domain Concepts

In time domain the signal is viewed as a function of time.
The domain is time.

>

Time Domain Concepts

Viewed as a function of time, an electromagnetic signal
can be either analog or digital.
Analog signal:
An analog signal is one in which the signal intensity varies
in a smooth fashion over time.
In other words, there are no breaks or discontinuities in
the signal.

Time Domain
Concepts

Analog Signal

Analog Signal : a good example is ecg signal recorded

by analog ECG device.

Time Domain
Concepts

Digital Signal

Digital Signal:
A digital signal is one in which the signal intensity
maintains a constant level for some period of time and
then changes to another constant level.

Time Domain
Concepts

Periodic Signal

Periodic Signal:
The simplest sort of signal is a periodic signal, in which
the same signal pattern repeats over time.
A natural periodic signal

Time Domain
Periodic
Concepts

and Aperiodic

Signal

Periodic and aperiodic Signal in mathematic view:

Mathematical s(t) is periodic if

where the constant T is the period of the signal (T is

smallest value that satisfies the equation).

Time Domain
Concepts

Sine Wave

The sine wave is the fundamental analog signal. A general

sine wave can be represented by three parameters: peak
amplitude, frequency, and phase.

The peak amplitude is the maximum value or strength of

the signal over time.
The frequency is the rate at which the signal repeats.
Phase is a measure of the relative position in time within a
single period of a signal, as illustrated later.

Time Domain
Concepts

Sine Wave

Consider this original Sine Wave. See the effect of changing

each of parameters.

Original
amplitude

Peak

Frequency
Phase

Time Domain
Concepts

Sine Wave

Wave length and velocity:

The wavelength of a signal is the distance occupied by a
single cycle, or, the distance between two points of
corresponding phase of two consecutive cycles.
Assume that the signal is traveling with a velocity v. Then
the wavelength is related to the period as follows: = vT.
Equivalently, f = v.

Frequency Domain
Concepts
An electromagnetic signal will be made up of many frequencies.
For example;

The components of this signal are just sine waves of frequencies f and
3f. The second frequency is an integer multiple of the first frequency.

Frequency Domain

fundamental frequency
When all of the frequency components of a signal are
integer multiples of one frequency, the latter frequency is
referred to as the fundamental frequency.
The period of the total
signal is equal to the
period of the fundamental
frequency.

Frequency Domain

Frequency Components
Using a discipline known as Fourier analysis, that any
signal is made up of sinusoid components at various
frequencies, amplitudes and phases.
By adding together enough sinusoidal signals, each with
the appropriate amplitude, frequency, and phase, any
electromagnetic signal can be constructed!
The subject of Fourier analysis is introduced in Appendix
B of the main text book.

Frequency Domain

Frequency Components

Frequency Domain

Spectrum
The spectrum of a signal is the range of frequencies that
it contains.
For the previous slide, the spectrum extends from f to 3f.
Example: Typical energy spectrum of a wideband speech
signal.

Frequency Domain

BandWidth
The absolute bandwidth of a signal is the width of the
spectrum.
Can we ideally limit a signal to a certain band of
frequencies?
Most of signals have an infinite bandwidth, but with most
of the energy contained in a relatively narrow band of
frequencies. This band is referred to as the
effective bandwidth, or just bandwidth.

Bandwidth

Data Rate and

Bandwidth

What is data rate?

Simply, information-carrying capacity.
What is the relation between data rate and bandwidth of a
signal?
There is a direct relationship between the informationcarrying capacity of a signal and its bandwidth.
The greater the bandwidth, the higher the informationcarrying capacity.

Data Rate and

Bandwidth
For a better intuition, consider the square wave. we let a
positive pulse represent binary 0 and a negative pulse
represent binary 1. Then the waveform represents the
binary stream 01010. ...
Duration of each pulse = 1/2f
Data rate = 2f bps
It can be seen, If we increase the frequency, data rate will
be increased too.

Data Rate and

Bandwidth
Another task : Now, suppose that we are using a digital
transmission system that is capable of transmitting signals
with a bandwidth of 4 MHz.
Let us attempt to transmit a sequence of alternating Os and
Is as the square wave.
Before doing this task, lets see frequency components of
square wave.

Data Rate and

Bandwidth
Another task:
Look the following shape

Data Rate and

Bandwidth
Indeed, it can be shown that the frequency components of
the square wave amplitudes A and -A can be expressed as
follows:

This waveform has an infinite number of frequency

components and hence an infinite bandwidth. However, the
peak amplitude of the kth frequency component, kf, is only
1/k, so most of the energy in this waveform is in the first few
frequency components.

Data Rate and

Bandwidth
Case 1:

approximate the square wave with just 3

frequency components f, 3f, 5f.
Lets

The signal bandwidth = 5f f = 4f

If f = 1 MHz then BW= 4MHz
Every pulse as one bit occurs every 0.5 micro sec.
So, data rate is 2Mbps.
Therefore, BW=4MHz data rate = 2Mbps

Data Rate and

Bandwidth
Case 1:
If f = 1 MHz then BW= 4MHz data rate = 2Mbps

Data Rate and

Bandwidth
Case 2:

approximate the square wave with just 3

frequency components f, 3f, 5f in the same way but
with higher f=2MHz.
Lets

The signal bandwidth = 5f f = 4f

If f = 2 MHz then BW= 8MHz
Every pulse as one bit occurs every 0.25 micro sec.
So, data rate is 4Mbps.
Therefore, BW=8MHz data rate = 4Mbps

Data Rate and

Bandwidth
Case 2:
If f = 2 MHz then BW= 8MHz data rate = 4Mbps

Data Rate and

Bandwidth
Case 3:

approximate the square wave with just 2

frequency components f and 3f with f=2MHz.
Lets

The signal bandwidth = 3f f = 2f

If f = 2 MHz then BW= 4MHz
Every pulse as one bit occurs every 0.5 micro sec.
So, data rate is 4Mbps.
Therefore, BW=4MHz data rate = 4Mbps

Data Rate and

Bandwidth
Case 3:
If f = 2 MHz then BW= 4MHz data rate = 4Mbps

Bandwidth

Data Rate and

Bandwidth

To summarize,
Case I: Bandwidth = 4 MHz; data rate = 2
Mbps
Case II: Bandwidth = 8 MHz; data rate = 4
Mbps
Case III: Bandwidth = 4 MHz; data rate = 4
Mbps
Which one is better?

Bandwidth
Data Rate

and
Bandwidth

In general, any digital waveform will have infinite

bandwidth. The transmission system will always limit the
bandwidth of transmitted signal.
Furthermore, for any given medium, the greater the
bandwidth transmitted, the greater the cost.
Thus, on the one hand, economic and practical reasons
dictate that digital information be approximated by a
signal of limited bandwidth.
On the other hand, limiting the bandwidth creates
distortions, which makes the task of interpreting the
received signal more difficult. The more limited the
bandwidth, the greater the distortion and the greater the

>

Data Transmission
You know very well digital and analog concept !
DATA:
we define data as entities that convey meaning, or
information.
Signals are electric or electromagnetic representations of
data.
Transmission is the communication of data by the
propagation and processing of signals.

Data Transmission

Analog and Digital Data

The same as signals, data also we have analog and digital
data.
Analog DATA : Analog data take on continuous values in some
interval.
For example, voice and video are continuously varying
patterns of intensity. Also Most data collected by sensors, such
as temperature and pressure.
Digital DATA : Digital data take on discrete values; examples
are text and integers.

Data
Transmission
Speech and

Music

Spectrum
The most familiar example of analog data is audio, which, in the form of
acoustic sound waves, can be perceived directly by human beings.

See the speech frequency range

Also see dynamic range of music and speech!

7 kHz

Data
Transmission
Speech and

Music

Spectrum
The most familiar example of analog data is audio, which, in the form of
acoustic sound waves, can be perceived directly by human beings.
Frequency components of typical speech may be found between approximately 100 Hz
and 7 kHz.
Although much of the energy in speech is concentrated at the lower frequencies, tests
have
shown that frequencies below 600 or 700 Hz add very little to the intelligibility of
speech to the human ear.
Typical speech has a dynamic range of about 25 dB;
that is, the power produced by the loudest shout may be as much as 300 times greater
than that of the least whisper.

Data
Transmission
Analog and

Digital

Signaling
Signaling: data propagation from one point to another by
means of electromagnetic signals.
Analog Signaling: Propagation of a continuously varying
electromagnetic wave that may be propagated over a
variety of media.
Media depending on frequency; examples are copper
wire media, fiber optic cable; and atmosphere or space
propagation (wireless).
Digital Signaling: Propagation of a sequence of voltage
pulses.

Data
Transmission
Analog and

Digital

Signaling
Advantage of Digital Signaling:
Digital signaling is generally cheaper than analog
signaling and is less susceptible to noise interference.
Disadvantage is that digital signals suffer more from
attenuation. Because of the attenuation, or reduction of
signal strength at higher frequencies, the pulses
become rounded and smaller. loss of the information

Can you explain the role of frequency in attenuation?

Data
Transmission
Analog and

Digital

Signaling
Both analog and digital data can be represented, and
hence propagated, by either analog or digital signals.

Data
Transmission
Analog and

Digital

Signaling
Analog Data by Analog Signal
Analog data are a function of time and occupy a limited
frequency spectrum.
An Interesting Result for Speech Transmission
(Telephone):
As sound waves have frequency range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
Most of the speech energy is in range of between 100 Hz and 7 kHz.
The standard spectrum of voice signals is 300 to 3400 Hz, and this
is quite adequate to propagate speech clearly.
In telephone for all sound input in the range of 300 to 3400 Hz, an
electromagnetic signal with the same frequency-amplitude pattern is
produced. The process is performed in reverse to convert the
electromagnetic energy back into sound.

Data
Transmission
Analog and

Digital

Signaling
Digital Data by Analog Signal :
Digital data can be represented by analog signals by use of a modem
(modulator-demodulator).
The modem converts a series of binary voltage pulses into an analog
signal by modulating a carrier frequency.
The most common modems represent digital data in the voice
spectrum and hence allow those data to be propagated over
telephone lines.
At the other end of the line, a modem demodulates the signal to
recover the original data.

Data
Transmission
Analog and

Digital

Signaling
Analog Data by Digital Signal :
Analog data can be represented by digital signals.
The device that performs this function for voice
data is a codec(coder-decoder).
Codec takes an analog signal of voice data and approximates that
signal by a bit stream.
At the other end, a codec uses the bit stream to reconstruct the
analog data.

Data
Transmission
Analog and

Digital

Signaling
Digital Data by Digital Signal :
To improve propagation characteristics, the binary data
are often encoded into a more complex form of digital
signal.

Data
Transmission
Analog and

Digital

Signaling
How to make Analog or Digital signaling for Analog or
Digital Signals (Summary)

Data
Transmission
Analog and

Digital

Signaling
Reasons for the choice of Analog or Digital signaling
for Analog or Digital Signals:
Digital data, digital signal: The equipment for encoding digital
data into a digital signal is less complex and less expensive than
digital-to- analog equipment.
Digital data, analog signal: Some transmission media, such as
optical fiber and satellite, will only propagate analog signals.
No way !

Data
Transmission
Analog and

Digital

Signaling
Reasons for the choice of Analog or Digital signaling
for Analog or Digital Signals:
Analog data, analog signal: Analog data are easily converted to an
analog signal.
Analog data, digital signal: Conversion of analog data to digital form
permits the use of modern digital transmission and switching
equipment for analog data.

Data
Transmission
Analog and Digital

Transmission
Analog Transmission:
Transmission of data (digital or analog) in form of analog
signals without regard to their content.
Disadvantage: The analog signal will suffer attenuation
that limits the length of the transmission link.
Solution: To achieve longer distances, the analog
transmission system includes amplifiers that boost the
energy in the signal.
Problem: The amplifier also boosts the noise
components.
The more distances, the more amplifiers, the more
distortion, and for digital data, also the more error!

Data
Transmission
Analog and Digital

Transmission
Digital Transmission:
is concerned with the content of the signal.
Disadvantage: Digital signal suffers attenuation more
that limits the length of the transmission link.
Solution: To achieve longer distances, repeaters are
used.
Repeater: A repeater receives the digital signal, recovers
the pattern of ones and zeros, and retransmits a new
signal.

Data
Transmission
Analog and Digital

Transmission
Digital Transmission:
is concerned with the content of the signal.
In the case of using analog signal for digital transmission
instead of repeaters, retransmission is used.
The retransmission device recovers the digital data from
the analog signal and generates a new, clean analog
signal, and transmit it again!

To Be Continued !