Dar es Salaam institute of Technology

(DIT)
ETU 07420
Switching Systems
Ally, J
[email protected]
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Traffic Engineering and Network

Planning

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Introduction

The traffic is defined as the occupancy of the server.

The basic purpose of the traffic engineering is to determine the
conditions under which adequate service is provided to subscribers
while making economical use of the resources providing the service.
The functions performed by the telecommunication network depends on
the applications it handles.
Some major functions are switching, routing, flow control, security,
failure monitoring, traffic monitoring, accountability internetworking and
network management.
Traffic engineering provides the basis for analysis and design of
telecommunication networks or model.
The developed model is capable to provide best accessability and
greater utilization of their lines and trunks.
Also the design is to provide cost effectiveness of various sizes and
configuration of networks.
The traffic engineering also determines the ability of a telecom network
to carry a given traffic at a particular loss probability.
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Traffic Statistics

Calling rate: This is the average number of requests for connection that
are made per unit time.
The calling rate () is also referred as average arrival rate. The average
calling rate is measured in calls per hour.
Holding time: The average holding time or service time h is the average
duration of occupancy of a traffic path by a call. The reciprocal of the
average holding time referred to as service rate () in calls per hour is
given as:
Distribution of destinations: Number of calls receiving at a exchange may
be destined to its own exchange or remoted exchange or a foreign
exchange.
User behavior: The statistical properties of the switching system are a
function of the behavior of users who encounter call blocking.
Average occupancy: If the average number of calls to and from a terminal
during a period T seconds is n and the average holding time is h
seconds, the average occupancy of the terminal is given by

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Traffic Pattern

An understanding of the nature of telephone traffic and its distribution

with respect to time (traffic load) which is normally 24 hours is essential.
It helps in determining the amount of lines required to serve the
subscriber needs. According to the needs of telephone subscribers, the
telephone traffic varies greatly.
The variations are not uniform and varies season to season, month to
month, day to day and hour to hour.

Thus, the combination of historical records, experience, location of

exchanges (business area or residential area), vacations, govt. policies
on holidays etc., decides the design of telecommunication network.
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Traffic Pattern Parameters

Busy hour: Traditionally, a telecommunication facility is engineered on

the intensity of traffic during the busy hour in the busy session.

Busy hour: Continuous 60 minutes interval for which the traffic volume or the
number of call attempts is greatest.
Peak busy hour: It is the busy hour each day varies from day to day, over a
number of days.
Time consistent busy hour: The 1 hour period starting at the same time each day
for which the average traffic volume or the number of call attempts is greatest
over the days under consideration.

Call completion rate (CCR): Based on the status of the called subscriber
or the design of switching system the call attempted may be successful
or not.
Busy hour call attempts: It is an important parameter in deciding the
processing capacity of an exchange. It is defined as the number of call
attempts in a busy hour.
Busy hour calling rate: It is a useful parameter in designing a local office
to handle the peak hour traffic. It is defined as the average number of
calls originated by a subscriber during the busy hour.
Day-to-day hour traffic ratio: It is defined as the ratio of busy hour calling
rate to the average calling rate for that day. It is normally 6 or 7 for rural
areas and over 20 for city exchanges.
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Units of Telephone Traffic

Traffic intensity is measured in two ways. They are Erlangs
and Cent call seconds (CCS).

Erlangs: The international unit of traffic is the Erlangs. A

server is said to have 1 erlang of traffic if it is occupied for
the entire period of observation. More simply, one erlang
represents one circuit occupied for one hour.

It is named after the Danish Mathematician, Agner Krarup

Erlang, who laid the foundation to traffic theory in the work
he did for the copenhagen telephone company starting
1908.

The traffic intensity is the ratio of the period for which the
server is occupied to the total period of observation is
measured in erlangs.
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Example:

If a group of 20 trunk carries 10 erlangs and the average call duration is

3 minutes, calculate (a) average number of calls in progress (b) total
number of calls originating per hour.

For the present day networks which support voice, data and many
other services, erlang is better measure to represent traffic intensity.
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Units of Telephone Traffic

Cent call seconds (CCS): It is referred as hundred

call seconds. CCS as a measure of traffic intensity is
valid only in telephone circuits.

CCS represents a call time product. This is used as a

measure of the amount of traffic expressed in units of
100 seconds. Sometimes call seconds (CS) and call
minutes (CM) are also used as a measure of traffic
intensity.

The relation between erlang and CCS is given by

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Example

Consider a group of 1200 subscribers which generate 600

calls during the busy hour. The average holding time is
2.2 minutes. What is the offered traffic in erlangs, CCS
and CM.

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Grade of Service (GOS)

The grade of service refers to the proportion of unsuccessful calls

relative to the total number of calls.
GOS is defined as the ratio of lost traffic to offered traffic.

The smaller the value of grade of service, the better is the service. The
recommended GOS is 0.002, i.e. 2 call per 1000 offered may lost. In a
system, with equal no. of servers and subscribers, GOS is equal to zero.
GOS is applied to a terminal to terminal connection. But usually a
switching centre is broken into following components

An internal call (subscriber to switching office)

An outgoing call to the trunk network (switching office to trunk)
The trunk network (trunk to trunk)
A terminating call (switching office to subscriber).

There are two possibilities of call blocking, which are Lost system and
Waiting system.

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Example

During a busy hour, 1400 calls were offered to a group of

trunks and 14 calls were lost. The average call duration
has 3 minutes. Find (a) Traffic offered (b) Traffic carried (c)
GOS and (d) The total duration of period of congestion.

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Blocking Probability and

The value of the blocking probability is one aspect of the telephone
Congestion
companys grade of service.
The basic difference between GOS and blocking probability is that GOS is a
measure from subscriber point of view whereas the blocking probability is a
measure from the network or switching point of view.
Based on the number of rejected calls, GOS is calculated, whereas by
observing the busy servers in the switching system, blocking probability will
be calculated.
The blocking probability, B is defined as the probability that all the servers in
a system are busy.
Congestion theory deals with the probability that the offered traffic load
exceeds some value. Thus, during congestion, no new calls can be
accepted.
There are two ways of specifying congestion, which time congestion and call
congestion.
Time congestion is the percentage of time that all servers in a group are
busy.
Call congestion is the proportion of calls arising that do not find a free server.
In general GOS is called call congestion or loss probability and the blocking
probability is called time congestion.

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Modeling of Traffic

To analyze the statistical characteristics of a switching system,

traffic flow and service time, it is necessary to have a mathematical
model of the traffic offered to telecommunication systems.
The model is a mathematical expression of physical quantity to
represents the behavior of the quantity under consideration.
Also the model provides an analytical solutions to a teletraffic
problems.
As the switching system may be represented in different ways,
different models are possible.
Depending on the particular system and particular circumstance, a
suitable model can be selected.
In practice, the facilities of the switching systems are shared by
many users. This arrangement may introduce the possibility of call
setup inability due to lack of available facilities.
If a subscriber finds no available server for his call attempt, he will
wait in a line (queue) or leave immediately. This phenomenon may
be regarded as a queueing system.
The mathematical description of the queueing system characterics
is called a queueing model.
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Telephone Network Organization

A telecommunication network contains a large number of

links joining different locations, which are known as the
nodes of the network.

To provide efficient communication, a telephone network

should include various transmission system (for example,
terrestrial, microwave, optical satellite communications),
switching system (to identity and connect calling and called
subscriber) and to exchange information between
subscriber and switching systems or between
interexchanges, a good signaling system required.

Telephone networks require certain form of procedure to

route a particular call to the destination for effective and
cost effective communication. So, the telephone network
should be implemented with a good routing plan.
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Network Management

The basic goal of the network management is to maintain

efficient operations during equipment failures and traffic
overloads.

A vital function of network management is controlling the

flow of call requests during network overload.

For the effective network management the study of various

services provided by the network, offered load of the
network, classification of the network based on services
offered, interconnection of different types of networks and
network planning is important.

Based on the data available for the above factors, the

network management is become updated.
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Network Planning

The planning of telecommunication system

comprising a network of switching centers
includes various plans.

From initiating the network to the extension of

the network based on the increased load,
network planning plays a vital role.

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Network services

The capabilities often collectively referred to as intelligence within

the network are listed below. Depending upon the applications the
network is to handle the interconnectivity with other networks.
Switching: The process of interconnecting incoming calls or data to
the appropriate outgoing channel called destination is referred
switching.
Routing: The ability of the network to select a path to connect
calling and called subscriber for telephone conversations or
providing path for data transfer between source and destination is
referred as routing.
Flow control: Managing the rate at which traffic enters a network. A
network without effective flow control procedures becomes very
inefficient.
Security: There are two ways of providing security of the network.
To increase the security of operation in presence of faults.
Preventing unauthorized access to the network and the data it
carries.
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Network services(2)

Signaling: A signaling system link the variety of switching system,

transmission system and subscriber equipments in a telecommunication
network to enable the network to function as a whole.
Traffic management: The ability of the network to keep track of traffic
levels. Traffic management is useful both in short term and long term
bases. On a short term basis, it can be used to support dynamic routing
and flow control. Over a long term it can be used in network design to
identify parts of the network where capacity may be productively
increased or decreased.
Accountability: This includes charging, billing, accounting and
inventory control. This is the ability of the network to track the users of
the network.
Administration: It is related to the ability of the network to identify the
load of a network and providing corresponding upgradition of parts,
extention of networks facility. It also identities the sales strategy,
investment planning etc.
Inter networking: It is the ability of the network to perform the functions
needed to communicate with and across other networks. This includes
providing routes for traffic crossing through, into and out of the network,
and allocating resources such as buffers and link capacity to traffic
originating other networks.

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Network Levels

All the above functions and some other service related functions are
usually classified or grouped into different levels.
This grouping ease the network and the concerned network engineers
to carryout the functions efficiently.

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Various Networking Plans

A national telecommunication network is large and complex.

Therefore certain plans are needed to govern the design of network.
The plans are independent and are affected by the predicted (or
planned) growth rate of the telecommunication system.
More specific network planning are :
Routing plans
Numbering plans
Charging plan
Transmission plan
Signaling plan
Grade of service
Network control and network administration.
The choice of a plan for a telecommunication system generally involves
comparison of the economics of various possible plans.
It also involves comparison of the economy of various possible plans
and involves a certain amount of human judgment.
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Types of Networks
There are in general three networks which can be used for any
services (voice or data transfer).

Public switched network: It allows access to the end office,

connects through the long-distance network, and delivers to the end
point. The goal of the network hierarchies is to complete the call in
the least amount of time and the shortest route possible.

Private networks: Many companies, depending on their size and

need, create or build their own networks. If their networks are
underutilized, they may give their network for hire or lease. These
networks employ mixture of technologies.

Hybrid networks: To provide a service, if an organization uses both

private and public networks, the network is referred as hybrid
network. Normally, the high-end usage services are connected via
private facilities, the lower volume locations use the switched
network.
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Network Classes

Based on the services:

1. The Public Switched telephone Network (PSTN)for
telephony.
2. The public switched telegraph networkfor telex
3. Data networksfor voice and data
4. Cellular radio networkfor mobile communication
5. Special service networksto meet specialized
demands.

Major telecommunication networks:

1. PSTN or POTS
2. Data networks
3. ISDN.
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Routing Plan

Routing planning refers to the procedures that

determine which path in a network are assigned to
particular connections.

The switching centers may use fixed routes to each

destination.

Adaptive routing may be employed in which each

exchange may use different routes for the same
destination, depending upon traffic conditions.

For effective routing of a call, some form of

interconnection of switching exchanges are required.
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Basic Topologies

The three basic topologies are Mesh, star and mixed or hierarchical
Mesh-connected network: This is also called fully connected topology. The
advantage of mesh network is that each station has a dedicated connection
to other stations. This topology offers the highest reliability and security. The
mesh topology requires N(N 1)/2 connections. For 100 stations, 4950 links
required.

Star topology: It is an alternative to the mesh arrangement. In star network,

the number of lines is equal to the number of stations. It needs larger, and
more powerful trunk centre. As only one larger centre is required, star
arrangement preferable. Note that the exchange area indicates that all the
calls in that area are considered to be local calls.

Hierarchical networks: Many star networks may be inter connected by using

an additional tandem exchange, leading to two level star network. An orderly
construction of multilevel star networks leads to hierarchical networks.
Hierarchical networks are capable of handling heavy traffic with minimal
number of trunk groups.

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Numbering Plan

The numbering plan is used to identify the subscribers

connected in a telecommunication network.

The main objective of numbering plan by any nation is

to standardize the number length wherever practical
according to CCITT recommendations.

Other objectives includes:

To meet the challenges of the changing telecom
environment
To meet subscriber needs for a meaningful and user
friendly scheme
To reserve numbering capacity to meet the
undefined future needs.
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ITU Recommendations in
Numbering
Recommendation E.164:
It provides the number structure and

functionality for three categories of numbers used for international

public telecommunication. The three categories of numbers are:
National telephone services: An international public
telecommunication number (for geographic areas) is also referred to
as the national significant number (NSN). NSN consists of the
country code (CC), national destination code (NDC) and the
subscriber number (SN).
Global telephone services: An international public
telecommunication number for global telephone service consists of
a three digit country code and global subscriber number. The
country code is always in the 8XX or 9XX range.
International networks: An international public telecommunication
number for international networks consists of three digit country
code, a network identification code and a subscriber number. The
country code is always in the 8XX range. The identification code is
one to four digits.
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ITU Recommendations in
Numbering
(2)a standard way to
Recommendation
E.123: This defines

write telephone numbers, email addresses and web

addresses. It recommends how to use hyphen (-), space (
), or period () . ( ) are used to indicate digits that are
sometimes not dialled, / is used to indicate alternate
numbers and is used in web addresses.

Recommendation E.162: This recommendation

describes that the originating country must analyze a
maximum of seven digits of the E.164 international
number. When a number is being analyzed, it will be done
according to this recommendations.

Also, the international numbering plan or world numbering

plan has been defined in recommendations E.160 ; E.161
and E.162.
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International Numbering Plan

This plan has to be implemented irrespective of a countrys national

numbering plane and implemented in accordance to the
recommendations of ITU.

With some standard international framework, subscribers from different

countries can call each other.

This plan makes it possible to access all countries with the same
country code any where in the world.

For the international numbering plan, the world has been divided into
nine geographical area.

The general rule is that within each global region each country code
starts with the same digit.
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World Numbering Zones

An international telephone number starts with one to three digit country code
followed by 9 to 12 subscriber number. The dialing procedure is that the
international prefix 00 should be dialed first followed by the telephone number.

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National Numbering Plan

Each country decides for itself what kind of numbering plan it can have. A
numbering plan may be open, semi open or closed.
National numbering plan is the one that each country decides what rules to
follow when issuing telephone numbers.
An open numbering plane or non-uniform numbering scheme allows variations
in the number of digits to be used to identify the subscriber. This plan is used
in countries equipped extensively with non-director strowger switching system.
This scheme is almost extinct (not now existing).
A closed numbering plan or uniform numbering plan refers to a numbering
plan which only allows telephone numbers of a predetermined length. Special
services (toll free, premium rate, etc.) are usually excluded from this rule.
A semi-open plan permits number lengths to differ by almost one or two digits.
Today, this scheme is the most common and is used in many countries
including India, Sweden, Switzerland and U.K.
The dialing procedure for national numbering plan are also comes in two
categories.
A closed numbering plan refers to a numbering plan which requires users
to dial all numbers at all times. This means that local-local calling also
requires the area code to be dialed, as well as the trunk prefix.
In open dialing plan local calls can be placed without the trunk prefix and
area code.
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Charging Plan

The cost of providing a telecommunication network consists of the

capital cost and the current operating expanses.

The capital cost includes switching systems, buildings, lines and land.

Operating cost includes staff salaries, maintenance costs, water and

electricity charges and miscellaneous expenses.

All of these costs must be met by the income obtained by the telecom
operator from its subscribers.

The telecom operator charges the subscribers for its services by the
following three ways:
An initial charge for providing a network connection (as installation
charges)
A rental or leasing charge
Call charges.

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Charging Plan

The initial costs are covered partly from installation charges and
partly from rental. The operating costs of the telephone exchange
are recovered through rental and call charges.
According to the government policy, the rental may be levied on a
monthly, bimonthly or by some other modes.
The quantity of equipments used, routing exchanges, switching
systems, lines carrying voice/data and human involvement in
establishing a connection between subscribers differs with respect to
the distance between the subscribers, the time at which the call is
made (at busy hour or off peak hour), the area (business or
residential) etc.
The charging methods for individual calls fall under two broad
categories.
Duration independent charging
Duration dependent charging
Traditionally, charges for long distance calls have been proportional
to distance multiplied with duration.
The local calls within a numbering area are usually charged on a
duration independent basis.
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Thanks!

Technology changes but communication lasts.

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