LPU

MEC208 : Engineering Materials

Course Objective...
Introduce fundamental concepts in Materials Science

You will learn about:

Material structure

How structure dictates properties

How processing can change structure

This course will help you to:

Use materials properly
Realize new design opportunities with materials

MEC208

LPU

MEC208

MEC208 : Engineering Materials

Text Books & References:
1. Material Science and engineering by William D. Callister, John Wiley & Sons,
USA, 8th Edition, (2007)
2. The Science and Engineering of Materials by Askeland, Fulay, Wright &
Balani, Cengage Learning, 6th Edition, (2011)
3. Material Science & Engineering by Raghavan, Prentice Hall of India, 5th
Edition, (2004)

LPU

MEC208

MEC208 : Engineering Materials

Tests, & Mid term
Tests:

In Week 4, Week 10 & Week 12/13

Syllabus, type & modus operandi of the examination will be furnished in

accordance to the appropriation in terms of time.

MID-Term:

In Week 7

Syllabus would be first three units.

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Engineering Materials?
Why ?

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Materials define Society

Stone Age (before 10,000 bc)

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Materials define Society

Copper Age (~ 9000 bc)

Bronze Age (~ 3000 bc)

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Materials define Society

Iron Age (~ 1200 bc)

Steel and Concrete(~ 1000 ad)

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Materials define Society

Polymers(~ 1900 )

Silicon (~1960)

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

Fundamentals
Today

Unit 1
Age of Next Generation Materials, Nanomaterials,
Bio-Materials, Smart Materials, e.t.c.

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Why do we need so many

materials,
Why do we have to engineer
new materials?
Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.
Engg., LPU

10

Fundamentals

Unit 1

A small Example:

Be strong & high impact resistance,

Non-toxic and unreactive to the coke,
Good barrier to retain CO2 even under high pressure,
Optically transparent,
Different Colors, different shapes e.t.c,
Inexpensive.
Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.
Engg., LPU

11

Fundamentals

Unit 1

How many materials do we have ?

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

12

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Classification of Materials

Semiconductors
&
Alloys

Biomaterials
Advanced Materials

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

13

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Metals & Alloys:

Metals,groupofchemicalelements that exhibit all
or most of the following physical qualities:
o They are solid at ordinary temperatures,
o Opaque, except in extremely thin films,
o Good electrical and thermal conductors,
o Lustrous when polished,
o Have a crystalline structure when in the solid.

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

14

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Metals & Alloys:

An alloy is a substance made by melting two or more elements
together, where atleast one of them a metal.
They retain all the properties of parent metals and exhibit superior
strength and resistance towards corrosion.

Steel : Fe + C + Mn/ Cr e.t.c

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

15

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Metals & Alloys:

An alloy is a substance made by melting two or more elements
together, where atleast one of them a metal.
They retain all the properties of parent metals and exhibit superior
strength and resistance towards corrosion.

Brass :

Cu + Zn

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

16

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Metals & Alloys:

An alloy is a substance made by melting two or more elements
together, where atleast one of them a metal.
They retain all the properties of parent metals and exhibit superior
strength and resistance towards corrosion.

Bronze: Cu + Sn

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

17

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Metals & Alloys:

An alloy is a substance made by melting two or more elements
together, where atleast one of them a metal.
They retain all the properties of parent metals and exhibit superior
strength and resistance towards corrosion.

Duralumin : Al + Cu

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

18

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Metals & Alloys:

An alloy is a substance made by melting two or more elements
together, where atleast one of them a metal.

Gold (Au)

Gold (Au) + Cu + (Ag)

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

19

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Metals & Alloys:

An alloy is a substance made by melting two or more elements
together, where atleast one of them a metal.

Gold (Au)
Carat conversion:
14k = 58.33%
18k = 75.00%
22k = 91.66%
23k = 95.83%
24k = 99.99%

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

20

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Ceramics:
Inorganic materials which consists of metallic or nonmetallic elements chemically bonded together.
o They are crystalline or non-crystalline ,
o High hardness, high temperature strength,
o Light Weight, Good heat and wear resistance,
o Good electric insulators, Brittle and have less impact resistance.

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

21

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Ceramics:

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

22

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Ceramics:
o Oxides (Al2O3, ZrO2, SiO2 e.t.c)
o Nitrides ( BN, Si3N4, e.t.c)
o Carbides (WC, SiC, BC e.t.c)

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

23

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Plastics or Polymers:
All the polymers are organic compounds based on C;
which are synthesized by the process called as
polymerization
o Most of them are non- crystalline,
o Very good electrical & thermal insulators,
o Can not withstand high temperatures,
o Inert towards many chemicals,
o Possess good weight/ strength ratio,
o Have very less density.
o Have good ductility and formability.
Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.
Engg., LPU

o Suitable for wear resistant applications.

24

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Plastics or Polymers:

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

25

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Composites
A composite is material
individual materials. They
are non existent in the
selves.

composed of two or more

possess the properties that
individual materials them
o High Temperature Resistant,

o Low Density and light weight

o Hard, but shock resistant,

o Strong & Ductile,

o Wear Resistant.

o Can be both insulators and

conductors.

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

26

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Composites

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

27

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Composites

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

28

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Semiconductors:
o The electrical conductivity of semiconducting materials is between
that of ceramic insulators and metallic conductors.
o Semiconductors have enabled the information age.
o In some semiconductors, the level of conductivity can be controlled to
enable electronic devices like transistors and diodes e.t.c.

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

29

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Biomaterials:
Biomaterials are the materials used in the
components implanted into the human body for
replacement of diseased or damaged body parts.
o Should not produce any toxic materials,
o Should be compatible with body tissues,
o Low weight, high strength and ductile,
o Some of them biodegradable.
o Functional materials for neural control.

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

30

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Biomaterials:

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

31

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Why do we need so many materials?

What are the specific properties
we are looking at ?

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

32

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Need for materials (i.e for final performance)

1. Microelectronics: ICs, Packaging e.t.c,
2. Infrastructure: Concrete, Metal Beams e.t.c,
3. Environmental Control: Biodegradable polymers, ion exchange e.t.c,
4. Communication/ Informatics: Fiber Optics, LEDs, Touch screen e.t.c
5. Energy: Solar Cells, Batteries, e.t.c,
6. Automotive: Chassis, Engine Parts, e.t.c,
7. Defense: Night Vision, Light Weight/ High Strength, High T
resistance,

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

33

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Need for materials (i.e for final performance)

8. Biotechnology: Medical Implants, Bio-compatible polymers,
biosensors,
9. Sport goods: Bicycle frame, golf clubs, e.t.c,
10. Surface enhancements: Inert, non corrosive, wear resistant, high
strength surfaces e.t.c

There is no Engineering without materials

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

34

Fundamentals

Unit 1

What are the Specific Properties we are looking at ?

Easily available, cheap and relatively safe to work.

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.
Engg., LPU

35

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Electrical Properties

Adding impurity atoms

to Cu increases resistivity.
Deforming Cu increases
resistivity.

5
(10-8 Ohm-m)

Electrical Resistivity of Copper:

Resistivity,

4
3
2
1
0

-200

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

-100

T (C)
36

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Space Shuttle Tiles:

Thermal Properties
-- Silica fiber insulation
offers low heat conduction. Thermal Conductivity
of Copper:

Thermal Conductivity
(W/m-K)

-- It decreases when
you add zinc!

100 m

400
300
200
100
0

0
10 20 30 40
Composition (wt% Zinc)

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

37

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Magnetic Properties
Magnetic Storage:
-- Recording medium
is magnetized by
recording head.

Magnetic Permeability
vs. Composition:

-- Adding 3 atomic % Si
makes Fe a better
recording medium!
Fe+3%Si

Magnetization

Fe

Magnetic Field
Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.
Engg., LPU

38

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Optical Properties

Transmittance:

-- Aluminum oxide may be transparent, translucent, or

opaque depending on the material structure.
single crystal

polycrystal:
low porosity

polycrystal:
high porosity

39

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

40

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Why all materials have different

properties?

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

41

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Carbon
Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.
Engg., LPU

42

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Carbon
Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.
Engg., LPU

43

Fundamentals

Materials are ENGINEERED

Structures
Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.
NOT
Black
Boxes
Engg.,
LPU

Unit 1

44

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Basic Definitions:
Composition means the chemical make-up of a material.
Structure means a description of the arrangements of atoms or
ions in a material.
Synthesis is the process by which materials are made from
naturally occurring or other chemicals.
Processing means different ways for shaping materials into
useful components or changing their properties.

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

45

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Atomic Structure?
Crystal Structure?
Types of Crystals?

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

46

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Atomic Structure: Bohrs Model

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

47

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Atomic Structure: Bohrs Model

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

48

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Crystal Structure:
Atoms self-organize in crystals, most of the time.
The crystalline lattice, is a periodic array of the atoms.
Ex: metals, diamond and other precious stones, ice, graphite e.t.c.

3D Structures

2D Structures

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

49

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Few more 2D Structures:

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

50

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Crystal Structure: (Amorphous)

When the solid is not crystalline, it is called amorphous.
Ex:glass, amorphous carbon (a-C), amorphous Si, most plastics

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

51

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Crystal Structure:

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

52

Unit 1

Unit Cell

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

53

Unit Cell

Unit 1

Crystal Structure: Unit Cell

The smallest structural unit of a crystal that
has all its symmetry and by repetition in
three dimensions makes up its full lattice.

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

54

Unit Cell

Unit 1

Crystal Structure: Unit Cell

The smallest structural unit of a crystal that
has all its symmetry and by repetition in
three dimensions makes up its full lattice.

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

55

Unit Cell

Unit 1

Crystal Structure: Unit Cell

The smallest structural unit of a crystal that
has all its symmetry and by repetition in
three dimensions makes up its full lattice.

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

56

Unit Cell

Unit 1

Crystal Structure: Unit Cell

The smallest structural unit of a crystal that
has all its symmetry and by repetition in
three dimensions makes up its full lattice.

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

57

Unit Cell

Unit 1

Important Parameters of a Unit Cell:

Unit cell is smallest repeatable entity that can be used to completely
represent a crystal structure.
It can be considered that a unit cell is the building block of the crystal
structure and defines the crystal structure by virtue of its geometry and the
atom positions within.

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

58

Unit Cell

Unit 1

Important Parameters of a Unit Cell:

The type of atoms and their radii R,
Cell dimensions (Lattice spacing
a, b and c) in terms of,
Angle between the axis , , .

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

59

Unit Cell

Unit 1

Important Parameters of a Unit Cell:

Number of atoms per unit cell (n). For an atom that is shared with m
adjacent unit cells, we only count a fraction of the atom, 1/m.

n = (1/8 x 8) + 1 = 2
Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.
Engg., LPU

60

Unit Cell

Unit 1

Important Parameters of a Unit Cell:

CN, the coordination number, which is the number of closest neighbours to
which an atom is bonded.

CN = 6

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

61

Unit Cell

Unit 1

Important Parameters of a Unit Cell:

APF, the atomic packing factor, which is the fraction of the volume of the cell
actually occupied by the hard spheres.
APF = Sum of atomic volumes/Volume of cell.

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

62

Crystal Systems

Unit 1

Crystal Systems
Only 7 crystal systems have been identified.
These 7 basic crystal systems are called Primitive lattices.
Unit cell of a primitive lattice contains atoms only the corners.

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

63

Crystal Systems

Unit 1

Crystal Systems
Only 7 crystal systems have been identified.
These 7 basic crystal systems are called Primitive lattices.
Unit cell of a primitive lattice contains atoms only the corners.

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

64

Unit Cell

Unit 1

Crystal Systems
Bravais showed that there are 14 possible arrangement of points (atoms) in
the space known as Bravais lattices.

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

65

Crystal Systems

Unit 1

Crystal Systems
Bravais showed that there are 14 possible arrangement of points (atoms) in
the space known as Bravais lattices.

66

Crystal Systems

Unit 1

Crystal Systems
Bravais showed that there are 14 possible arrangement of points (atoms) in
the space known as Bravais lattices.

67

Crystal Systems

Unit 1

Crystal Systems

o which Crystal System does this unit cell belongs to?

68

Unit 1

Crystallographic
Points & Directions

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

69

ystallographic Directions & Planes

Unit 1

Point Co-ordinates
The position of any point located in unit cell can be specified.
It is done in terms of its coordinates as fractional multiples of unit cell edge lengths.
Represented in terms of a, b, and c

q, r, s

70

ystallographic Directions & Planes

Unit 1

Point Co-ordinates
For the Unit cell shown in the following sketch, locate the point having coordinates

, 1,

71

ystallographic Directions & Planes

Unit 1

Point Co-ordinates
Specify point coordinates for all atom positions for a cubic unit cell with atoms at
cube corners and cube center

1) 0 0 0
2) 1 0 0
3) 1 1 0
4) 0 1 0
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)

001
101
111
011
72

ystallographic Directions & Planes

Unit 1

Crystallographic Directions
A vector of convenient length is positioned such that it passes through the origin of
the coordinate system.
The length of the vector projection on each of the three axis is determined, which
are measured in terms of unit cell dimensions a, b, and c.

1) 1 1 1
2) 1 1 0
3) 1 1 1

73

ystallographic Directions & Planes

Unit 1

Crystallographic Directions
These three Nos are multiplied or divided by common factor to reduce them to the
smallest integer values.
The three indices are not separated by commas, are enclosed in square brackets,
thus: [uvw].

1) 1 1 1
2) 1 1 0
3) 1 1 1

74

ystallographic Directions & Planes

Unit 1

Crystallographic Directions
Find the indices of Direction 2.

Direction 2: [

1 0 2]

75

ystallographic Directions & Planes

Unit 1

Crystallographic Directions

The u, v, and w integers

correspond to the reduced
projections along the x, y, and z axes
respectively.

76

ystallographic Directions & Planes

Unit 1

Crystallographic Directions
z

Algorithm
1.Vector repositioned (if necessary) to
pass
through origin.
y 2.Read off projections in terms of
unit cell dimensions a, b, and c
3.Adjust to smallest integer values
4.Enclose in square brackets, no
commas

ex: 1, 0,
-1, 1, 1

=> 2, 0, 1
=>

[ 111 ]

[uvw]
=>
[ 201 ]
where overbar represents a negative
index

families of directions
<uvw>

ystallographic Directions & Planes

Unit 1

Crystallographic Directions
Both negative and positive coordinates do exist. Negative indices are represented
by a bar over the appropriate index.

[ 1 1 0]

78

ystallographic Directions & Planes

f01_pg76

Crystallographic Directions

Find the Indices of direction A, B, C, D

ABCDDirection A: Shift the origin at the tail of A

[ 2 0 1]

Unit 1

ystallographic Directions & Planes

Unit 1

Crystallographic Directions
Find the indices of A, B, C & D.

ABCD-

80

ystallographic Directions & Planes

Unit 1

Crystallographic Directions (HCP)

o In Hexagonal symmetry, there are no crystallographic equivalent sites
(so no same set of indices).
o So we use Miller- Bravias, co-ordinate
system using 4 axis system.
o Three parameters a1, a2, a3 lie on the same
plane (base plane), and are @ 120o to each
other.
o The Z axis is perpendicular to this base
plane.
81

ystallographic Directions & Planes

Unit 1

Crystallographic Directions (HCP)

o In Hexagonal symmetry, there are no
crystallographic equivalent sites (so no
same set of indices).
o For Convince, divide each lattice
parameter into three parts

[ a1 a2 a3 z]
[uvtw]
82

ystallographic Directions & Planes

Unit 1

Crystallographic Directions (HCP)

83

ystallographic Directions & Planes

Unit 1

Crystallographic Directions (HCP) Miller Indices :

o Conversion of four index system into three

[uvtw]

[ u' v ' w ']

84

ystallographic Directions & Planes

Unit 1

Crystallographic Directions (HCP) Miller Indices :

o Convert the [111] direction in four direction system of Hexagonal crystals:

[ 1 1 2 3]
85

ystallographic Directions & Planes

Unit 1

Crystallographic Directions (HCP) Miller Indices :

o Convert the above direction with the reduced scale coordinate system

[ 1 1 2 3]

86

ystallographic Directions & Planes

Unit 1

Crystallographic Directions (HCP) Miller Indices :

o Draw the [111] direction within the
hexagonal unit cell which utilizes
(a1, a2, z) system.

[1 1 1]

87

ystallographic Directions & Planes

Unit 1

Crystallographic Directions (HCP) Miller Indices :

o Determine the directional indices
(4 index system) of the following
hexagonal system

[ u' v ' w
']

[uvtw]

88

ystallographic Directions & Planes

Unit 1

Crystallographic Directions (HCP) Miller Indices :

o Determine the directional indices
(4 index system) of the following
hexagonal system

[ u' v ' w
']

?
[ 0 2 1]

89

ystallographic Directions & Planes

Unit 1

Crystallographic Directions (HCP) Miller Indices :

o Determine the directional indices
(4 index system) of the following
hexagonal system

[ 2 4 2 3]
90

Unit 1

Crystallographic
Planes

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

91

ystallographic Directions & Planes

Crystallographic Planes:

Adapted from Fig. 3.9, Callister 7e.

Unit 1

ystallographic Directions & Planes

Unit 1

Crystallographic Planes:
Miller Indices: Reciprocals of the (three)
axial intercepts for a plane, cleared of
fractions & common multiples. All
parallel planes have same Miller indices.
Algorithm
1. Read off intercepts of plane with axes in
terms of a, b, c
2. Take reciprocals of intercepts
3.Reduce to smallest integer values
4.Enclose in parentheses, no
commas i.e., (hkl)

ystallographic Directions & Planes

Crystallographic Planes:
example
a
1
1.
Intercepts
2.
Reciprocals 1/1
1
3.
Reduction
1
4.

Miller Indices

4.

Miller Indices

b
1
1/1
1
1

1/
0
0

(110)

example
a
1/2
1.
Intercepts
2.
Reciprocals 1/
2
0
3.
Reduction 2
0

Unit 1

y
b

a
x

1/

1/

0
0

y
a

(100)
x

ystallographic Directions & Planes

Unit 1

Crystallographic Planes:
z
example
1.

Intercepts

a
1/2

2.

Reciprocals

1/

3.

Reduction

4.

Miller Indices

b
1

c
3/4

1/1

1/

4/3

(634)

Family of Planes {hkl}

Ex: {100} = (100),

(010), (001), (100), (010), (001)

ystallographic Directions & Planes

f01_pg77
Crystallographic Planes:
(Practice Problems)

Unit 1

ystallographic Directions & Planes

f04_pg76
Crystallographic Planes:
(Practice Problems)

Find the Miller Indices for plane 1 & 2

Plane 2

Unit 1

ystallographic Directions & Planes

f01_pg77
Crystallographic Planes:
(Practice Problems)
Plane A

Find the Miller Indices for planes

A&B

Plane B

Unit 1

ystallographic Directions & Planes

f02_pg77
Crystallographic Planes:
(Practice Problems)

Unit 1

Find the Miller Indices for plane A & B

For plane A shift the origin
one unit cell distance along y
axis direction

Plane B

ystallographic Directions & Planes

Unit 1

Crystallographic Planes: (HCP)

In hexagonal unit cells the same idea is
z
used
example
a1
1
1.
Intercepts
1
2.
Reciprocals
1
3.
Reduction
1

a2

1/
0
0

a3
-1
-1
-1
-1

c
1
1
1
1

a2

a3

4.

Miller-Bravais Indices (1011)

a1
Adapted from Fig. 3.8(a), Callister 7e.

ystallographic Directions & Planes

p_pg59
Crystallographic Planes:
(HCP)

Find the Miller Indices for plane passing through APQGF

Answer

Unit 1

Unit 1

Metallic Crystalline
Structures

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

102

Metallic Crystalline Structures

Unit 1

Crystal Structure of Metals

Most of the metals crystallize into three forms of crystal systems:
1) Face-Centered Cubic Structure (FCC)
2) Body-Centered Cubic Structure (BCC)
3) Hexagonal Close Paced Structure (HCP)

103

Metallic Crystalline Structures

Unit 1

Simple Cubic Cell:

Number of atoms (n) =
Effective length of unit cell (a) =
Co-ordination Number (CN) =
Volume of unit cell (Vc) =
Volume of all atoms in the unit cell ( Vs)
Atomic Packing Factor (Efficiency) of the
cell () =
Void = 100 -
104

Metallic Crystalline Structures

Unit 1

Simple Cubic Cell:

Number of atoms (n) =
R

Effective length of unit cell (a) = 2R

Co-ordination Number (CN) =
Volume of unit cell (Vc) =
a

Volume of all atoms in the unit cell ( Vs)

Atomic Packing Factor (Efficiency) of the
cell () =
Void = 100 -
105

Metallic Crystalline Structures

Unit 1

Simple Cubic Cell:

Number of atoms (n) = 1/8 x 8 = 1
R

Effective length of unit cell (a) = 2R

Co-ordination Number (CN) = 6
Volume of unit cell (Vc) =
a

a3 = (2R)3 = 8R3
Volume of all atoms in the unit cell ( Vs)
= n x 4/3 R3 = 4/3 R3
Atomic Packing Factor (Efficiency) of the
cell ()= Vs/Vc = 52.4%
Void = 100 -
106

Metallic Crystalline Structures

Unit 1

Body Centered Cubic Cell:

Number of atoms (n) =
Effective length of unit cell (a) =
Co-ordination Number (CN) =
Volume of unit cell (Vc) =
Volume of all atoms in the unit cell ( Vs)
Atomic Packing Factor (Efficiency) of the
cell () =
Void = 100 -
107

Metallic Crystalline Structures

Unit 1

Body Centered Cubic Cell:

Number of atoms (n) =

Effective length of unit cell (a) =

4R

Co-ordination Number (CN) =

Volume of unit cell (Vc) =
a

Volume of all atoms in the unit cell ( Vs)

Atomic Packing Factor (Efficiency) of the
cell () =
Void = 100 -
108

Metallic Crystalline Structures

Unit 1

Body Centered Cubic Cell:

Number of atoms (n) = (1/8 x 8) + 1 = 2

Effective length of unit cell (a) = 4/3 R

4R

Co-ordination Number (CN) = 8

Volume of unit cell (Vc) = a3 = (4/3 R)3
a

Volume of all atoms in the unit cell ( Vs)

= n x 4/3 R3 = 8/3 R3
Atomic Packing Factor (Efficiency) of the
cell () = Vs/Vc = 68 %
Void = 100 - 32 %
109

Metallic Crystalline Structures

Unit 1

Face Centered Cubic Cell:

Number of atoms (n) =
Effective length of unit cell (a) =
Co-ordination Number (CN) =
Volume of unit cell (Vc) =
Volume of all atoms in the unit cell ( Vs)
Atomic Packing Factor (Efficiency) of the
cell () =
Void = 100 -
110

Metallic Crystalline Structures

Unit 1

Face Centered Cubic Cell:

Number of atoms (n) =
Effective length of unit cell (a) =
Co-ordination Number (CN) =
Volume of unit cell (Vc) =
Volume of all atoms in the unit cell ( Vs) =
Atomic Packing Factor (Efficiency) of the
cell () =
Void = 100 -
111

Metallic Crystalline Structures

Unit 1

Face Centered Cubic Cell:

Number of atoms (n) =
(1/8 x 8) + (1/2 x 6 ) = 4
Effective length of unit cell (a) = 2 2 R
Co-ordination Number (CN) = 12
Volume of unit cell (Vc) = a3 = (2 2 R)3
Volume of all atoms in the unit cell ( Vs)
= n x 4/3 R3 = 16/3 R3
Atomic Packing Factor (Efficiency) of the
cell () = Vs/Vc = 74 %
Void = 100 - 26 %
112

Metallic Crystalline Structures

Unit 1

Hexagonal Closed Packed Cell:

113

Metallic Crystalline Structures

Unit 1

Hexagonal Closed Packed Cell:

Number of atoms (n) =
Effective length of unit cell (a) =
Co-ordination Number (CN) =
Volume of unit cell (Vc) =
Volume of all atoms in the unit cell ( Vs) =

Atomic Packing Factor (Efficiency) of the

cell () =
Void = 100 -
114

Metallic Crystalline Structures

Unit 1

Hexagonal Closed Packed Cell:

Number of atoms (n) =
(1/6 x 12) + (1/2 x 2) + 3 = 6
Effective length of unit cell (a) = 2R
Co-ordination Number (CN) =
Volume of unit cell (Vc) =
Volume of all atoms in the unit cell ( Vs) =
R

Atomic Packing Factor (Efficiency) of the

cell () =
Void = 100 -
115

Metallic Crystalline Structures

Unit 1

Hexagonal Closed Packed Cell:

Number of atoms (n) =
(1/6 x 12) + (1/2 x 2) + 3 = 6
Effective length of unit cell (a) = 2R
Co-ordination Number (CN) =
Volume of unit cell (Vc) =
Volume of all atoms in the unit cell ( Vs) =
Atomic Packing Factor (Efficiency) of the
cell () =
Void = 100 -
116

Metallic Crystalline Structures

Unit 1

Hexagonal Closed Packed Cell:

Number of atoms (n) =
(1/6 x 12) + (1/2 x 2) + 3 = 6
Effective length of unit cell (a) = 2R
Co-ordination Number (CN) = 12
Volume of unit cell (Vc) =
Volume of all atoms in the unit cell ( Vs) =
Atomic Packing Factor (Efficiency) of the
cell () =
Void = 100 -
117

Metallic Crystalline Structures

Unit 1

Hexagonal Closed Packed Cell:

Number of atoms (n) =
(1/6 x 12) + (1/2 x 2) + 3 = 6
Effective length of unit cell (a) = 2R
Co-ordination Number (CN) = 12
Volume of unit cell (Vc) =
Volume of all atoms in the unit cell ( Vs) =
Atomic Packing Factor (Efficiency) of the
cell () =
Void = 100 -
118

Metallic Crystalline Structures

Unit 1

Hexagonal Closed Packed Cell:

Volume of unit cell (Vc) =
Base consists of 6 triangles.
Area of Base = 6 x x a x L
= 3a2 sin 60o
Volume of HCP cell = Area of base x height
= 3a2 sin 60o x c
c/a = 1.633.
Volume of HCP cell (Vc) =
= 3a2 sin 60o x c

a
L

= 4.2426 a3 = 4.2426 (2R) 3

119

Metallic Crystalline Structures

Unit 1

Hexagonal Closed Packed Cell:

Number of atoms (n) =
(1/6 x 12) + (1/2 x 2) + 3 = 6
Effective length of unit cell (a) = 2R
Co-ordination Number (CN) = 12
Volume of unit cell (Vc) = 4.2426 (2R) 3
Volume of all atoms in the unit cell ( Vs) =
= n x 4/3 R3 = 6 x 4/3 R3
Atomic Packing Factor (Efficiency) of the
a

cell () = Vs/Vc = 74 %
L

Void = 100 -
120

Metallic Crystalline Structures

Unit 1

Crystal Structure of Metals

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

121

Unit 1

Density Computations

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

122

Density Computations

Unit 1

Density of Materials
Density = Mass/Volume
Where n = number of atoms effective atoms in unit cell,

Mass of Unit Cell = n . A

NA

gm

NA = Avagadros number = 6.023 x 1023/mole

Volume of Unit Cell = a3

A = Atomic mass (in gm),

Where a = Lattice Constant, cm

Density = = n . A gm

Lattice constant = a =

a . NA
3

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

n.A

NA

cm

123

Density Computations

Unit 1

Problems :
1) Iron has BCC structure and the atomic radius is 1.24 . Calculate the
lattice constant a for the cubic structure of the iron unit cell.
Atomic radius:

R = 1.24 .

Lattice constant:

a = 4R/(3)

R
4R

= 4 x 1.24/ (3)
= 2.8637
a

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

124

Density Computations

Unit 1

Problems :
2)

Cu has FCC structure and the atomic diameter is 2.556 . Calculate

the lattice parameter.

Atomic radius:

R = D/2 = 2.556/2
= 1.278 .

Lattice constant:

a = 4R/(2)

= 4 x 1.278/ (2)
= 3.6147

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

125

Density Computations

Unit 1

Problems :

3) Determine the percentage volume change that occurs when iron changes
from BCC structure to FCC cubic structure.
For BCC structure ,

Assuming there is no change in the size of iron atom,

a = 4R/(3) and n = 2
and volume/ atom V = a3/n

% of V =

= 4R/(3) x = 6.16 R3
For FCC structure,
a = 4R/(2) and n = 4
and volume/ atom V = a3/n

% of V

Final Volume Initial Volume

Initial Volume

% of V =

5.66 R3 6.16 R3
6.16 R3

100

100

- 8.1 %

= 4R/(2) x = 5.66 R3.

126

Density Computations

Unit 1

Problems :

4) Cu has a FCC structure and an atomic radius of 0.1278 nm. The atomic
mass of Cu is 63.5 g/mol & Avogadro's No. is 6.023 x 1023. Calculate the
density of Cu.
Atomic Radius R = 0.1278 nm
= 0.1278 x 10-7 cm
Atomic Mass = 63.5 g/mol.
For FCC, n = 4.
-7
a = 4R/2 = 4 x 0.1278
x
10

127

Density Computations

Unit 1

Problems :

4) Cu has a FCC structure and an atomic radius of 0.1278 nm. The atomic
mass of Cu is 63.5 g/mol & Avogadro's No. is 6.023 x 1023. Calculate the
density of Cu.

Density = =

a . NA
3

Atomic Radius R = 0.1278 nm

= 0.1278 x 10-7 cm

n.A

gm

Density of Cu =

Atomic Mass = 63.5 g/mol.

4 x 63.5
3
4 x 0.1278 x 10-7
2

6.023 x 1023

For FCC, n = 4.
a = 4R/2 = 4 x 0.1278 x 10

-7

= 8.933 g /cm3

128

Density Computations

Unit 1

Problems :

5) The lattice constant of iron (in BCC) is 2.86 . What is the density of
iron taking the atomic weight of iron as 55.85 amu
Lattice Constant:

a = 2.86 =

Density of Iron :

n.A

a3. NA

2.86 x 10 -8 cm.

gm

For Iron (BCC): n = 2, A = 55.86 amu (g/mol) and

2 x 55.85
( 2.86 x 10 ) . 6.023 x 10
-7

23

N = 6.023 x 10 23

= 7.93 g/cc

129

Density Computations

Unit 1

Problems :

6) NaCl crystals have FCC structure. The density of NaCl is 2.18 g/cc.
Calculate the distance between two adjacent atoms.
Density () = 2.18 g/cc; and for FCC n = 4.
Molecular Weight of NaCl = atomic weight of Na + atomic Weight of Cl
= 23 + 35.5 = 58.5 (i.e. atomic mass. A = 58.5 g/mol)
Density : =

n.A

gm

Lattice constant = a =

a3. NA

a =
3

4 x 58.5
2.18 x. 6.023 x 1023

n.A

cm

= 5.63 x 10-8 cm = 5.63

130

Polymorphism & Allotropy

Unit 1

Definition :
Some Metals and non-metals may have more than one crystal structure.
This phenomenon is called as Polymorphism.
If similar behavior prevails in elemental solids, it is called Allotropy.
The prevailing crystal structure depends on both temperature & Pressure
Carbon forms Graphite under
ambient conditions

Where as, the same carbon forms

Diamond under extreme temperature
& pressure. (~ 5 GPa @ 1500 oC)
Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.
Engg., LPU

131

Polymorphism & Allotropy

Unit 1

Polymorphism :
Most of the time there will be changes in the density and other physical
properties of the materials, with polymorphism.

Pure Iron (Fe) has BCC crystal

structure @ room temperature.

Whereas, pure Iron (Fe) changes to

FCC when heated @ 912 oC

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

132

Linear & Planar Densities

Unit 1

Linear Density:
LD =

No. of atoms centered on direction vector

Length of directional vector

For example:
Determine the linear density of the [110] direction for the FCC crystal
No. of atoms = X + Y + Z
= 2 atoms.
Length = R + 2R + R = 4R

LD110 =
LD110 =

2 atoms
4R
1
2R

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

133

Linear & Planar Densities

Unit 1

Planar Density:
PD =

No. of atoms centered on a plane

Area of plane

For example:
Determine the planar density of the [110] direction for the FCC crystal
No. of atoms = X + N + Z + M + Y
= 2 atoms.

Area of plane = l . b
= 82 R2
22 R

PD110 =
PD110 =

2 atoms
82 R2

4R

1
42 R2

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

134

Unit 1

Closed Packed
Structures

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

135

Closed Packed Structures

Unit 1

Closed Packed Structures:

It was observed that both HCP and FCC crystals have atomic packing factor of
0.74, which is the most effective packing of equal sized atoms.

Stacking in cubic structures

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.
Engg., LPU

136

Closed Packed Structures

Unit 1

Closed Packed Structures:

It was observed that both HCP and FCC crystals have atomic packing factor of
0.74, which is the most effective packing of equal sized atoms.

A Portion of Close Packed Plane

Lattice Structures Part 1.mp4

A & B stacking sequence

for Close Packed Plane
Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.
Engg., LPU

137

Closed Packed Structures

Unit 1

Closed Packing of HCP:

It was observed that both HCP and FCC crystals have atomic packing factor of
0.74, which is the most effective packing of equal sized atoms.

Close packing sequence for HCP

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.
Engg., LPU

138

Closed Packed Structures

Unit 1

Closed Packing of FCC:

Relation between close pack sequence

and crystal structure of FCC
Close packing sequence for FCC
Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.
Engg., LPU

139

Closed Packed Structures

Unit 1

The difference between close stacking of HCP and FCC:

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

140

ngle Crystal & Polycrystalline Mtl.

Unit 1

Single Crystal:
A single crystal or mono-crystalline solid is a material in which the crystal lattice of
the entire sample is continuous and unbroken to the edges of the sample, with no grain
boundaries.
Defect Less:
- Unique Properties,
- Mechanical,
- Optical,
- Electrical,
- Anisotropic.
Garnet Single Crystal found in Tongbei,
Fujain Provienc, China
141

ngle Crystal & Polycrystalline Mtl.

Unit 1

Single Crystal:
Because entropic effects, impurities, inhomogeneous strain and crystallographic
defects such as disorders and dislocations, perfect single crystals of meaningful size
are exceedingly rare in nature.

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

142

ngle Crystal & Polycrystalline Mtl.

Unit 1

Single Crystal:
Difficult to produce in the laboratory, though they can be made under controlled
conditions

Lanthanum Nickelate crystals being grown

on Lanthanum Molybdate pellet.

Si single crystals being grown in

Laboratory

Courtesy of Smithsonian, Jan 2000, Vol 30, No. 10

ngle Crystal & Polycrystalline Mtl.

Unit 1

Single Crystal:
Glass used in high end wrist watches, gorilla glass, & touch screens used in Iphone,
android e.t.c, are also single crystals made out of sapphire.

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

144

ngle Crystal & Polycrystalline Mtl.

Unit 1

Polycrystal:
Polycrystalline materials are ones which are composed of many small single crystals
or grains. They fall between single crystals or amorphous materials.

145

ngle Crystal & Polycrystalline Mtl.

Unit 1

Polycrystal:
Initially small nuclei of various individual crystals form and they grow in different
orientation. The wall that divided each of the grain is called an grain boundary.

Stage 1

Stage 2
Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.
Engg., LPU

Stage 3

146

ngle Crystal & Polycrystalline Mtl.

Unit 1

Polycrystal:
Initially small nuclei of various individual crystals form and they grow in different
orientation. The wall that divided each of the grain is called an grain boundary.

Stage 4
Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.
Engg., LPU

147

MEC208

LPU

End of UNIT - 1

Please read the book.

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

149

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

150

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

151

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

152

Fundamentals
A

Unit 1

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

153

Fundamentals

Unit 1
Z

A
C

,
Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.
Engg., LPU

154

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

155

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

156

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

157

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

158

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

159

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

160

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

161

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

162

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

163

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

164

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

165

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

166

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

167

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

168

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

169

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

170

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

171

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

172

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

173

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

174

Fundamentals

Unit 1

Dr. Uday K. Ravella, School of Mech.

Engg., LPU

175