The document discusses key concepts related to analog and digital signals at the physical layer of the OSI model. It defines periodic and aperiodic signals, and explains characteristics of analog signals including amplitude, frequency, phase, and their relationship to digital signals. It also compares analog and digital signals, discusses bandwidth requirements for digital signals, and how digital signals can be transmitted over band-limited mediums. The physical layer is responsible for converting data to signals, determining transmission rate, clocking, and establishing a direct connection between devices.
The document discusses key concepts related to analog and digital signals at the physical layer of the OSI model. It defines periodic and aperiodic signals, and explains characteristics of analog signals including amplitude, frequency, phase, and their relationship to digital signals. It also compares analog and digital signals, discusses bandwidth requirements for digital signals, and how digital signals can be transmitted over band-limited mediums. The physical layer is responsible for converting data to signals, determining transmission rate, clocking, and establishing a direct connection between devices.
The document discusses key concepts related to analog and digital signals at the physical layer of the OSI model. It defines periodic and aperiodic signals, and explains characteristics of analog signals including amplitude, frequency, phase, and their relationship to digital signals. It also compares analog and digital signals, discusses bandwidth requirements for digital signals, and how digital signals can be transmitted over band-limited mediums. The physical layer is responsible for converting data to signals, determining transmission rate, clocking, and establishing a direct connection between devices.
The document discusses key concepts related to analog and digital signals at the physical layer of the OSI model. It defines periodic and aperiodic signals, and explains characteristics of analog signals including amplitude, frequency, phase, and their relationship to digital signals. It also compares analog and digital signals, discusses bandwidth requirements for digital signals, and how digital signals can be transmitted over band-limited mediums. The physical layer is responsible for converting data to signals, determining transmission rate, clocking, and establishing a direct connection between devices.
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Nor Azimah Khalid
FSKM, UiTM Shah Alam
Where it is in OSI Model
Physical Layer
Duties of Physical Layer
convert data (bit pattern) to signal
Determine s maximum limit of data rate transmissio n depend on the design of physical hardware and software
providing clocking mechanis m to control sender and receiver timing of the transfer
set of techniques that allows the simultaneo us transmissio n of multiple signals across a single data link
Create direct connection two devices such as phones or computers
Analog & Digital Data
Analog data human voice captured by a microphone and converted to an analog signal Digital data form 0s and 1s converted to a digital signal when transferred
from one position to another
Analog signals can have an infinite number of
values in a range Digital signals can have only a limited number
of values
Comparison of Analog &
Digital Signals
In data communications, we commonly use periodic analog signals and nonperiodic digital signals.
Periodic & Aperiodic
Signals Periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable time frame, called a period and repeats that pattern over subsequent identical periods. Completion of one full pattern cycle Aperiodic signal changes without exhibiting a pattern or cycle that repeats over time
Relationship Data &
Signals
Analog Signals All analog signals have three components: Amplitude Frequency Phase They can be classified as Simple Sine wave, cannot be decomposed
into smaller signals
Composite Composed of multiple sine waves
Amplitude The amplitude of a signal is the height of
the wave above or below a given reference
point It is measured in volts
Amplitude
Represents the absolute value of its highest intensity,
proportional to the energy it carries
Amplitude Variations
Frequency The frequency is the number of times a signal
makes a complete cycle within a given time
frame; frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz), or cycles per second Spectrum the range of frequencies that a signal spans from minimum to maximum Bandwidth the absolute value of the difference between the lowest and highest frequencies of a signal
Frequency
Frequency For example, consider an average voice The average voice has a frequency range of
roughly 300 Hz to 3100 Hz
The spectrum would be 300 3100 Hz The bandwidth would be 2800 Hz
Frequency Change in a short span of time means
HIGH FREQUENCY. Change over a loooooonnnnggg span of time means LOW FREQUENCY If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is ZERO. If a signal changes instantaneously, its frequency is INFINITE. (1/0)
Frequency Variations
Phase The phase of a signal is the position of the waveform
relative to a given moment of time or relative to time
zero A change in phase can be any number of angles between 0 and 360 degrees Phase changes often occur on common angles, such as 45, 90, 135, etc. Phase is measured in degrees or radians (360 is 2 rad) A phase shift of 360 corresponds to a shift of a complete period; a phase shift of 180 corresponds to a shift of one-half of a period; and a phase shift of 90 corresponds to a shift of one-quarter of a period
Phase
Example A sine wave is offset one-sixth of a cycle with
respect to time zero. What is its phase in degrees
and radians?
We know that one complete cycle is 360
degrees. Therefore, 1/6 cycle is (1/6) 360 = 60 degrees = 60 x 2p /360 rad = 1.046 rad
Sine Wave Changes over the course of a cycle is smooth
and consistent, continuous, rolling flow
Each cycle consist of a single arc above the time axis and followed by a single arc below it Mathematically describe as:
s(t) = A sin (2ft + )
Sine Wave Peak amplitude (A) maximum strength of signal volts Frequency (f) rate of change of signal Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second
Period = time for one repetition (T)
T = 1/f Phase () relative position in time measured in degrees or radians
Period and Frequency
Period amount of time, in seconds, a signal
needs to complete one cycle
Frequency no of periods in one second Frequency and period are inverses of each other. f = 1/T ; T = 1/f
Example The power we use at home has a frequency of 60
Hz. The period of this sine wave can be
determined as follows:
Units of Periods &
Frequencies UNIT
EQUIVALENT
Seconds (s)
1s
UNIT hertz (Hz)
EQUIVALENT 1 Hz
Milliseconds (ms)
103 s
kilohertz (KHz)
103 Hz
Microseconds (s)
106 s
megahertz (MHz)
106 Hz
Nanoseconds (ns)
109 s
gigahertz (GHz)
109 Hz
Picoseconds (ps)
1012 s
terahertz (THz)
1012 Hz
Period
Frequency
Exercise
Express a period of 100 ms in microseconds, and
express the corresponding frequency in kilohertz.
Solution From Table 3.1 we find the equivalent of 1
ms.We make the following substitutions:
100 ms = 100 10-3 s = 100 10-3 106 ms = 105 ms Now we use the inverse relationship to find the frequency, changing hertz to kilohertz 100 ms = 100 10-3 s = 10-1 s f = 1/10-1 Hz = 10 10-3 KHz = 10-2 KHz
Wavelength distance occupied by one cycle Between two points of corresponding phase in
two consecutive cycles
It is the distance between repeating units of a propagating wave of a given frequency Mathematically: Wavelength=propagation speed x period = propagation
speed frequency
Time and Frequency
Domain Time domain shows changes in signal amplitude with respect to time Phase and frequency are not explicitly
measured on a time domain plot
Frequency domain shows changes in
amplitude with respect to frequency
Time and Frequency
Domain
Time and Frequency
Domain
Time and Frequency
Domain
A complete sine wave in the time
domain can be represented by one single spike in the frequency domain.
Time and Frequency
Domain
Time and Frequency
Domain
Composite Signals A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in data
communications. E.g. Phone conversation if use single signal it just yield a buzz Changes of one or more of its characteristics need to be done to make it useful. The signal will become a Composite Signal (which is made of many simple sine waves)
Fourier Analysis According to Fourier Analysis, any composite
signal can be represented as a combination of
simple sine waves with different frequencies, phases and amplitudes
Fourier Analysis
Frequency Spectrum The description of a signal using the
frequency domain and containing all its
components
Composite Signal &
Transmission Medium no transmission medium is perfect
each medium passes some frequencies;
weaken others; blocks still others. that will give this result
Bandwidth Range of frequencies that a medium can
pass; without losing one-half of the power contained in that signal. It is a property of a medium: the difference between the highest and the lowest frequencies that the medium can satisfactorily pass.
Bandwidth of Signals
Exercise If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine
waves with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and
900 Hz, what is the bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all components have a maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Solution B = fh -fl = 900 - 100 = 800 Hz The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100,
300, 500, 700, and 900
Digital Signals +ve voltage
zero voltage
Bit Interval & Bit Rate
Bit interval time required to send one single
bit Bit rate no of bit intervals per second (bps)
Exercise A digital signal has a bit rate of 2000bps.
What is the duration of each bit?
Solution The bit interval is the inverse of the bit rate Bit interval = 1/2000s = 0.000500s
= 0.000500 x 106 s = 500 s
Digital Signals A digital signal is a composite signal with an
infinite bandwidth Digital signal through a wide-bandwidth medium i.e:- using coaxial cable to send a digital signal through a LAN Digital signal through a band-limited medium i.e:- sending data using telephone lines to the internet
Digital vs Analog
Bandwidth Requirement Bit Rate
Harmoni Harmonics c 1, 3 1
Harmonic s 1, 3, 5
Harmonics 1, 3, 5, 7
1 Kbps
500 Hz
2 KHz
4.5 KHz
8 KHz
10 Kbps
5 KHz
20 KHz
45 KHz
80 KHz
100 Kbps
50 KHz
200 KHz
450 KHz
800 KHz
The bit rate and the bandwidth are
proportional to each other.
Digital vs Analog Bandwidth Analog Bandwidth range of frequencies that a medium can pass; in Hertz Digital Bandwidth maximum bit rate that a medium can pass; in bps
