1 Computers, data and

information
A computer is an information processing
machine.
Computers process data to produce
information.
The sets of instructions that humans give
computers are called programs or software.
Software that carries out a particular type of
task for a user is often called applications
software.

GCSE Information
Technology
There are many reasons for using
computers:-
Computers can work much faster than
humans;
Computers never get tired or need a rest;
Computers can do jobs that it would be
dangerous for a human to do;
Computers can store large amounts of
information in a very small space;
Computers can find information very
quickly;
Computers never lose or misplace GCSE Information
Technology
The three stages of computing are input,
processing and output.

A computer works through these stages

by ‘running’ a program.

A program is a set of step-by-step

instructions which tells the computer
exactly what to do with input in order to
produce the required output.

GCSE Information
Technology
Input

This stage of computing is concerned with

getting the data needed by the program into
the computer.

Input devices are used to do this.

The most commonly used input devices are

the mouse and the keyboard.

GCSE Information
Technology
Processing

The instructions about what to do with the

input are contained in a program.

During the processing stage the computer

follows these instructions using the data
which has just been input.

What the computer produces at the end of

this stage is called output.

GCSE Information
Technology
Output

This stage of computing is concerned

with producing the processed data as
information in a form that is useful to
the user.

Output devices are used to do this.

The most commonly used output

devices are the screen, which is also
called a monitor or visual display
unit (VDU) and the printer.
GCSE Information
Technology
Data and information

Data is any collection of numbers,

characters or other symbols that has
been coded into a format that can be
input into a computer and processed.

Data on its own has no meaning, or

context.

It is only after processing by a computer

that data takes on a context and
becomes information.
GCSE Information
Technology
There are many types of data.

All data ends up being stored as a

series of numbers inside the computer.

Data can be input to the computer by

the user in many different ways.

The main types of data that can be

input into a computer and processed
are numeric, text, dates, graphics
and sound.

GCSE Information
Technology
Computer Systems
Hardware is the name that is given to
any part of a computer that you can
actually touch.
An individual piece of hardware is called
a device.
The basic hardware of any computer
consists of a central processing unit
(CPU) along with input, output and
backing storage devices.

GCSE Information
Technology
 I nput Central Processing Output
Devices Unit (CPU) Devices

Backing Storage
Devices

GCSE Information
Technology
The central processing unit (CPU)

This is the part of the computer where the

searching and sorting of data, calculating
and decision-making goes on.

The CPU contains the Main Memory, the

Control Unit and the Arithmetic and
Logic Unit (ALU).

GCSE Information
Technology
 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

PROCESSOR

Main
ALU
I nput
Memory and
Output
Devices
Control
Unit

data flow control flow instruction flow

GCSE Information
Technology
2 Manual Input Methods
Manual input devices are
used by people to enter data by
hand.

Keyboard
Pointing devices
Joystick
Digital camera
Touch screen
Scanner
Concept keyboard
Graphics tablet
Microphone
Light pen GCSE Information
Technology
Keyboar
d

The keyboard is the most common type of input

device. Ordinary computer keyboards have their
keys arranged in a similar way to those on a
typewriter. This way of arranging the keys is
called QWERTY because of the order that the
keys appear in on the first row of letters.

GCSE Information
Technology
Pointing
devices
A mouse is a
pointing device. It is the next
most common type of input device after the
keyboard.

Touch pads and trackballs are also types of

pointing device. They are often used instead of
a mouse on portable computers.

GCSE Information
Technology
Joystick
The main use of a joystick is to play computer
games by controlling the way that something
moves on the screen.

Joysticks can be used to control movement from

side-to-side, up-and-down and diagonally.

A joystick will also always have at least one

button on it which can be used to make
something happen like making a character in a
game jump or fire a gun.

GCSE Information
Technology
Touch
screen
A touch screen can detect exactly where on its
surface it has been touched. Touch screens are
used in a lot of fast food chains and restaurants
because they are easy to keep clean and re-
program if changes need to be made to the
menu.

GCSE Information
Technology
Digital
camera
A digital camera can store many more pictures
than an ordinary camera. Pictures taken using a
digital camera are stored inside its memory and
can be transferred to a computer by connecting
the camera to it. A digital camera takes pictures
by converting the light passing through the lens
at the front into a digital image.

GCSE Information
Technology
Scanner
A scanner can be used to input pictures and
text into a computer. There are two main types
of scanner; Hand-held and Flat-bed.

GCSE Information
Technology
Concept
keyboard
A concept keyboard is a flat board with a grid of
programmable keys on its surface.

A single key or a group of keys can be set up to

carry out a particular task.

Paper overlays are placed on top of the

keyboard with pictures drawn on them to
represent what will happen if the keys in a
certain position are pressed.

Concept keyboards are often used with young

children in primary schools who can’t use an
ordinary keyboard very well.
GCSE Information
Technology
Graphics tablet
A graphics tablet consists of
a flat surface and a pen, or
stylus, which can be used to
produce freehand drawings
or trace around shapes.

When the special pen touches the surface of the

graphics tablet data about its position is sent to
the computer. This data is used to produce on
the screen an exact copy of what is being drawn
on the surface of the graphics tablet.

GCSE Information
Technology
Microphone
A microphone is used to input sound into a
computer system.

Microphones are often used for voice

recognition systems which convert
sounds made by a user into commands
that the computer can carry out. Systems
like this are very useful for people who
can’t use ordinary input devices such as
the mouse and keyboard.

As computers become more powerful in

the future, voice recognition will be a
much more common input method for all
computer users. GCSE Information
Technology
Light pen
•A light pen is a small ‘pen-shaped’ wand, which
contains light sensors.
•It is used to choose objects or commands on
the screen either by pressing it against the
surface of the screen or by pressing a small
switch on its side.
•A signal is sent to the computer, which then
works out the light pen’s exact location on the
screen.
•The advantage of a light pen is that it doesn’t
need a special screen or screen coating.

GCSE Information
Technology
3 Direct Input
Methods
•Methods of capturing and entering data
directly without any need for human
intervention.

•Sometimes called direct data entry, or

DDE for short

•Used when very large amounts of data

need to be input quickly and accurately.

GCSE Information
Technology
 Optical Mark Recognition
(OMR)
•OMR uses an input device called an optical mark reader to
detect marks made in certain places on specially printed
forms.

•A fast input method, used where large amounts of data need

to be input quickly.

•Used to input data from things like answer sheets for

multiple choice exams and registration forms in schools

•Also National Lottery forms

GCSE Information
Technology
 Magnetic Ink Character
Recognition (MICR)
•MICR uses an input device called a magnetic ink character
reader to input characters that have been printed in special
magnetic ink

•Banks use MICR to process cheques

•Banks use this method of input for processing cheques

because it is very secure

•The equipment needed to print and read characters in

magnetic ink is very expensive
GCSE Information
Technology
 Optical Character
Recognition (OCR)
•OCR is the use of an ordinary scanner and special
software to convert text in a scanned image into a format
that can be edited by word processing software

•Text must be printed or written very clearly

•Used for the reading of typed postcodes

•OCR depends on the shape of the marks whereas OMR

depends on the position of the marks

GCSE Information
Technology
 Bar codes
•A bar code is a set of lines of different thicknesses that
represent a number

•Bar Code Readers are used to input data from bar codes.
Most products in shops have bar codes on them

•Bar code readers work by shining a beam of light on the

lines that make up the bar code and detecting the amount
of light that is reflected back

•Bar codes represent a code number for a product

GCSE Information
Technology
 Magnetic stripe readers
•A magnetic stripe is a thin band of magnetic tape

•Often on the back of a credit or debit card, identity cards

and electronic key cards in hotels and businesses

•Magnetic stripes can hold only a small amount of data

and are quite easy to forge

•In the next few years magnetic stripes will be replaced

with smart cards which store much more data on a small
microchip built into the surface of the card

GCSE Information
Technology
 Sensors

•Sensors are used to detect physical quantities outside a

computer such as temperature, pressure and light

•To be able to process input from sensors a device called

an analogue-to-digital converter must be connected
between the computer and the sensors. This device
converts signals from sensors into digital data that the
computer can process.

GCSE Information
Technology
 Data logging

•Data logging is a way of using a computer to automatically

collect data over a period of time without any need for
human supervision

•Useful when data needs to be collected in remote or

inhospitable conditions where it would be difficult for
humans to take measurements

•Used in weather monitoring stations and in science

experiments

GCSE Information
Technology
Applications of data
logging
•Collecting scientific data

•Monitoring hospital patients

•Collecting weather data

•Monitoring air quality

GCSE Information
Technology
4 Checking data
Data stored on a computer is only useful as
long as it is correct and up-to-date.
it is important to check data when it is
entered to make sure that it is both sensible
and correct.
If data is not checked before it is processed
any errors could cause the final output to be
nonsense.
There are two methods that can be used to
check data when it is input.
These are called verification and
validation.
GCSE Information
Technology
Verification

Verification is checking to make sure that data

has been entered correctly.
Verification is often carried out by getting two
users to enter the same set of data at different
computers.
Once both users have entered the data the two
sets of data are compared to check that they
match up.
Any data that does not match up is rejected.
Verification can also be carried out by software
which might, for example, ask for the same data
to be entered twice. If both entries don't match
up the data is rejected. GCSE Information
Technology
Validation

Validation checks are carried out by software to

make sure that data which has been entered is
allowable and sensible.
Data that is not sensible or allowed is rejected by
the computer.
There are many different types of validation
check that software can make on data.
We will now look at some of these in more detail.

GCSE Information
Technology
Range check
Range checks are used to check that data is
within a certain range of numbers or a specific
set of values.
For example if the examination marks for a group
of students was being input a range check could
be used to make sure that each mark was
greater than or equal to zero and less than or
equal to the maximum possible mark.

GCSE Information
Technology
Type check
Type checks are used to check that the correct
type of data has been entered in a field.
For example if numeric data is being input a type
check could be used to make sure that text data
isn’t entered by accident.

Length check
Length checks are used to check that input data
contains a certain number of characters.
For example if a value in a certain field had to
contain five digits and only four digits were input,
an error message would be given to the user.
GCSE Information
Technology
Presence check
A presence check is used to make sure that a
value has actually been entered in a field.
In some database files entering data in certain
fields can be optional. Other fields, such as key
fields for example, are compulsory and must
have values entered in them.
A presence check makes sure that data is present
in a field where it is compulsory that a value is
needed.

GCSE Information
Technology
Parity check
Sometimes when data is being transferred
electronically from one place to another it can
become corrupted.
A parity check is used to make sure that data has
not been corrupted during transmission.
Data is transmitted as a binary pattern of 0s and
1s.
A parity check involves adding an extra 0 or 1,
called a parity bit, to the binary pattern so that
the total number of 1s in the pattern is either an
even number, this is called even parity, or an
odd number, this is called odd parity.
GCSE Information
Technology
In even parity the parity bit is set to either
0 or 1 so that the total number of 1s adds
up to an even number.
In this example there are four 1s so the
value 0 is needed in the parity bit to keep
the number of 1s even.

1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 Parity Bit

GCSE Information
Technology
In odd parity the parity bit is set to either 0
or 1 so that the total number of 1s adds
up to an odd number.
In this example there are two 1s so the
value 1 is needed in the parity bit to make
the number of 1s odd.

1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 Parity Bit

GCSE Information
Technology
Hash total
Hash totals are used to check that groups of
numbers have been input correctly.
A hash total is the sum of a group of numbers
that are going to be input.
The hash total is input along with the numbers.
The computer calculates a hash total for the
numbers that have been input.
If the hash total calculated by the computer does
not match the hash total that was input with the
numbers then one or more of the numbers have
either not been entered or have been entered
incorrectly.
GCSE Information
Technology
Check digit
Check digits are used to validate long numbers
that have a lot of digits in them.
A check digit is an extra digit placed at the end of
long number that can be used to check if the
number has been input correctly.
Check digits are often used to check numbers
that have been input using direct data entry
devices such as bar code scanners or light pens.

GCSE Information
Technology
 Input number including check digit at
The value of a check digit is the end.
worked out by performing a
calculation using the
individual digits that make Use numbers before the check digit to
up a number. re-calculate what the check digit
should be.
This calculation gives the
value of the check digit
which is then added as an Compare the re-calculated value of
extra digit to the end of the the check digit to the value that was
number. input.

If the re-calculated check digit

matches the input check digit then
the number can be accepted,
otherwise it must be rejected.

GCSE Information
Technology
Calculating check digits using the modulus-11
method
1. Each digit is assigned a weight starting at 2 with
the right hand digit;
2. Each digit is multiplied by its weight;
3. The results of these calculations are added
together to give a total;
4. The total is divided by 11;
5. The remainder is subtracted from 11 to give the
check digit. The two exceptions are:
If the remainder is 0 and the result is 11 the
check digit is 0, not 11.
If the remainder is 1 and the result is 10 the
check digit is X, not 10.
GCSE Information
Technology
Coding data
When data is input using a manual input device
such as a keyboard, errors often occur due to
values being entered incorrectly.
A common mistake is to swap two letters or digits
around; this is called a transposition error.
One method that can be used to cut down on
errors like this is to use coded values for data.
Suppose that a field could contain one of three
possible values; small, medium or large. Instead
of typing in the full word each time we could
instead type S, M or L.

GCSE Information
Technology
The advantages of coding values are:
Fewer key presses are needed when entering a
value in the field so there is less chance of the
wrong keys being pressed;
Time is saved when entering data because there
is less to type in each time;
Database packages allow automatic validation
checks to be set up to make sure that only the
allowed codes have been input in a field.

GCSE Information
Technology
5 Storing data

Data storage devices can be divided into 2 main

categories:

Backing storage is used to store programs and data

when they are not being used or when a computer is
switched off.
When programs and data are needed they are copied into
main memory but also still remain on backing storage.
Magnetic tape drives, floppy disk drives and hard disk
drives are all examples of backing storage devices.

The Main Memory contains two types of memory chip

called ROM and RAM which hold program instructions
and data. GCSE Information
Technology
BITS and BYTES
Computers store and process data
using binary numbers.
A single unit in binary is called a bit
which stands for binary digit.
Computer memory is measured in
bytes.
One byte is made up of eight bits.
One byte can store one character.
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
The eight bit binary code in
this byte represents the letter
A

GCSE Information
Technology
The size of a computer’s memory is
normally measured in kilobytes (Kb),
megabytes (Mb) or gigabytes (Gb).
The table below shows some of the
main units of size that we use to
measure computer memory.
Measurement Size (bytes) Symbol
kilobyte 1,024 Kb

megabyte 1,048,576 Mb

gigabyte 1,073,741,824 Gb

GCSE Information
Technology
Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM is the computer’s ‘working

memory’.

RAM temporarily stores programs and

data that are being used at a given
time.

The contents of RAM can be changed

and are lost when the computer is
turned off.

Memory which is wiped clean when

GCSE Information
the computer is turned off is called
Technology
Read Only Memory (ROM)

The main use of ROM memory chips in a

computer is to store the program that runs
when the computer is turned on which loads
the operating system (e.g. Windows 2000)
from disk.

The contents of ROM can’t be changed and

aren’t lost when the computer is switched off.

Memory which isn't wiped clean when the

computer is turned off is called non-volatile
memory.
GCSE Information
Technology
PROM and EPROM

PROM and EPROM are both special types of

programmable read only memory.

PROM stands for Programmable Read Only

Memory. This type of memory can be
programmed once but can’t be changed
again afterwards.

EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable

Read Only Memory. This type of memory can
be programmed and then changed whenever
necessary.
GCSE Information
Technology
Hard disk
drives
A hard disk is a circular metal disk coated with
magnetic material and usually sealed in a hard
disk drive inside the computer.

Some hard disk drives are not permanently

fixed inside the computer but are removable.

Data stored on a hard disk can be accessed

much more quickly than data stored on a floppy
disk.

Hard disks can store much more data than a

floppy disk. A typical hard disk inside a personal
computer can hold several gigabytes ofGCSEdata.
Information
Technology
Floppy disks
A floppy disk a circular piece of
plastic coated with a magnetic
material and protected by a hard
plastic cover.
The size of a floppy disk is
measured in inches. Modern floppy
disks are 3½ inches wide.
A standard floppy disk can store up to 1.44 Mb
of data.

Before any type of magnetic disk can be used it

must be formatted.

GCSE Information
Technology
The formatting process involves:
Dividing the surface of the disk into invisible
circles called tracks and sectors.
Setting up a root directory where the list of
files that are on the disk will be kept.
Data on a magnetic disk is located by finding
the address of its location from an index in the
root directory.
Each address in the index contains a track and
sector number for an individual data segment.

GCSE Information
Technology
CD-ROM
CD-ROM stands for compact disk read only
memory. A CD-ROM looks just like an ordinary
compact disk.

CD-ROMs can store approximately 650

megabytes of data which is four hundred
times more data than an ordinary 3½ inch
floppy disk.

CD-ROM disks come with information already

on them and are read only. This means that
the information on a CD-ROM cannot be
erased or changed, and no new information
can be saved.
GCSE Information
Technology
Writeable CDs
Writeable compact disks are supplied blank and
can have data put onto them using a special
read/write CD drive.

There are two main types of writeable compact

disk;
WORM (Write-Once, Read-Many) disks
which can have data written to them
just once.
Magneto-Optical disks which can
have data written to them any number
of times just like a hard disk.

GCSE Information
Technology
Digital versatile disk
(DVD)
•DVD is the latest way of storing data

•DVD discs are expected to replace ordinary compact

discs and video tapes in the future

•A DVD disc can store up to 17 gigabytes of data. This is

enough storage space for at least four full-length feature
films!

GCSE Information
Technology
Magnetic tape
Magnetic tape comes in two forms; tape reels,
and cassettes or cartridges.

Large tape reels are used to make backup

copies of programs and data on large mainframe
computers.

Cartridges are used to make backup copies of

the programs and data on personal computers
and networks.

The main advantage of using magnetic tape as

backing storage is that it is relatively cheap and
can store large amounts of data.
GCSE Information
Technology
Direct and serial access
Floppy disks, hard disks and CDs all allow direct
access to data.

Direct access means that the required data can

be found straight away without having to read
through all the data on the disk.

Magnetic tape allows only serial access to

data. To locate data on a magnetic tape it has to
be searched from the beginning until the
required data is found.

GCSE Information
Technology
File compression
File compression software can be used to
make files smaller so that more data can be
stored in the same amount of space on backing
store.

When a compressed file on backing store needs

to be used it must be decompressed.

This can be done using decompression

software or by setting files up to be self-
extracting which means that they can
automatically decompress themselves.

Winzip is an example of software that can be

used to compress and decompress files.
GCSE Information
Technology
6 Output Methods
Before any output can be produced by a
computer it must have an output
device connected to it.
The output devices that you are
probably most used to will be the
screen, or monitor, and the printer.
Another sort of output that you will have
experienced when using a computer is
sound, which is output through a
speaker.
GCSE Information
Technology
Monitor
A monitor or screen is an
output device that can display
graphics and text and video.
The picture on a monitor is
made up of thousands of tiny
coloured dots called pixels.

The quality of the output on a monitor depends

on its resolution.

The resolution of a monitor depends on the

number of pixels that it can display.

GCSE Information
Technology
Dot matrix
printers
A dot matrix printer forms characters and
graphics on the paper by producing patterns
of dots. If you look closely at a print-out from a
dot matrix printer you will see the tiny dots
which make up the printout.

The part of the printer which forms the patterns

of dots is called the print head. The print head
is made up from pins which are pushed out in
different arrangements to form the various
patterns of dots needed.

GCSE Information
Technology
Inkjet printers
Inkjet printers work like dot matrix printers
because the printouts that they produce are
made up of patterns of very small dots but the
print head has a set of tiny holes rather than
pins. As the print head moves across the paper
ink is forced out through the holes to form the
image.
Inkjet printers are very
quiet to operate and can
produce good-quality
printouts of both graphics
and text. Relatively cheap
colour graphics can be
printed using a colour
inkjet. GCSE Information
Technology
Laser printers
Laser printers give very high-quality printed
output of both text and graphics very quickly
and quietly.
They are generally
more expensive to buy
than inkjet printers and
the toner cartridges are
more expensive.
They are very suitable
for large volume
printouts because of
their speed.

GCSE Information
Technology
Plotters
The main difference between a plotter and a
printer is that a plotter uses a pen to draw the
computer output onto the paper.

Some plotters use a set of

coloured pens to produce
colour output. Plotters
produce very accurate
drawings and are often
used in computer aided
design or CAD.

GCSE Information
Technology
Speakers
Computers can output music, voices and many
other complicated sounds using speakers.

To be able to output sound a computer needs to

have a special circuit board inside it called a
sound card.

GCSE Information
Technology
7 Operating Systems
An operating system is a set of programs
that controls how the hardware of a
computer works.
An operating system provides a means
of communication between the user and
the computer, deals with the loading and
running of applications programs and
manages the transfer of data and files to
and from peripheral devices.

GCSE Information
Technology
The most widely used operating systems are
called Windows 2000, MacOS (for Apple Mac
computers), Novell Netware and UNIX.

The operating system that a computer has also

determines what applications software will run
on it.

Applications software will only work on a

computer that has the operating system that it
was designed to be used with.

Applications software will not run on a computer

that has a different operating system to the one
that it was designed for.
GCSE Information
Technology
 User

Applications Sof tware

Operating System

Computer Hardware

GCSE Information
Technology
Functions of an operating
system
It deals with input and output, which involves:
Accepting data from input devices and
transferring it to the computer’s memory.
Making sure that any output is sent to the correct
output device.

It manages the transfer of data between the

computer’s memory and backing storage devices.

It manages system resources, which involves:

Allocating memory space to programs and data.
Keeping track of which parts of the memory have
already been allocated and the parts that are still
free.
GCSE Information
Technology
It deals with the loading of applications software
into memory and controls the execution, or
‘running’ of them. It also provides a way for
applications software to communicate with the
computer’s hardware.

It deals with any errors that occur when a program

is being run, or when data is being transferred
somewhere, and informs the user if necessary.

It manages system security, which involves:

Monitoring and restricting access to programs
and data.
Preventing unauthorised access to the system.

It provides a human computer interface, or HCI,

for the user. GCSE Information
Technology
It provides special facilities for
multiprogramming.

A multiprogramming operating system can hold

more than one program in memory at the same
time. There are two types of multiprogramming
operating system; multitasking, and multi-
user.

A multitasking operating system allows two or

more programs to run at the same time. The
operating system does this by swapping each
program in and out of memory in turn. When a
program is swapped out of memory it is stored
temporarily on disk until it is needed again.
Windows 2000 is an example of a multitasking
operating system. GCSE Information
Technology
Backing Storage CPU
Program A
MAI N MEMORY

Program B
Program C

GCSE Information
Technology
A multi-user operating system lets many users
at different terminals share processing time on a
powerful central computer.

The operating system does this by switching

rapidly between the terminals giving each one in
turn a small amount of processor time on the
central computer.

The operating system switches so quickly

between the terminals that each user appears to
have uninterrupted access to the central
computer.

However if there are a large number of users on

such a system the time that it takes theGCSE
central
Information
Technology
Utility programs
Utility programs are usually supplied along with an
operating system. They are used to carry out routine
tasks that are often needed by a user such as:

Compressing a file to save space on backing

storage
Defragmenting a disk drive
Recovering data from damaged file
Checking a disk for faults and repairing them
Formatting a floppy disk
Checking the files on a disk for computer viruses
GCSE Information
Technology
Processing methods
A processing method is the way that a particular
operating system deals with input. There are three
main types of processing method: real-time,
transaction and batch processing.

Real-time processing systems process input data

so quickly that the resulting output can affect further
input. It is used for applications where it is essential
that the computer responds straight away to input.

Examples of applications where real-time processing

is used are missile defence systems, automatic pilot
systems on aircraft and monitoring intensive care
patients in a hospital. GCSE Information
Technology
Transaction, or on-line, processing, is used for
applications where input needs to be dealt with
straight away but it is not critical if there is a slight
delay in the time that it takes for the computer to
respond to requests.

Examples of applications where transaction

processing is used include the on-line seat booking
systems used by airlines and the stock control
systems used by catalogue companies like Argos.

A system where transaction processing is used will

always give an up-to-the-minute picture of the
current situation.

GCSE Information
Technology
A batch processing system does not respond to
input straight away. Instead, input is collected
together into a ‘batch’ while the system is off-line.

When a batch is ready to be processed the system

goes on-line to carry out the processing of the data.

Batch processing is non-interactive. This means that

the user cannot get an immediate response to input
as they would with an interactive system.

Examples of applications that use batch processing

include producing gas, electricity or water bills and
marking OMR sheets from multiple choice
examinations.
GCSE Information
Technology
8 User Interfaces

The human computer interface is what allows the user to

communicate with the computer and is often called simply
the user interface.

The three main types of user interface are;

Command-driven
Menu-driven
Graphical or GUI.

GCSE Information
Technology
Command-driven user
interfaces
To use a command-driven system to
communicate with the computer, the user has
to type in special command words.

DOS, which stands for Disk Operating System,

is a very commonly used command-driven
user interface.

The main advantage of command driven

interfaces is that they can be quick to use as
long as the user knows the correct
commands.

GCSE Information
Technology
The main disadvantage of command-driven
interfaces is that they are very difficult to use if
the user is a beginner or doesn’t know the correct
commands. Command-driven systems can be very
unfriendly and confusing for non-computer experts
to use.
CyberSoft(R) PC-DOS Version 5 The correct commands to
(c) Cyber Corp 1987-1996 copy the file are typed in
by the user at the
keyboard
C:\DOS\> copy c:\ fred.txt a:\
1 file(s) copied The operating system
displays a message to
C:\DOS\>
confirm that the command
has been carried out
successfully.

GCSE Information
Technology
Menu-driven user interfaces
Menu-driven systems offer the user lists of options
which they can select by pressing a particular key
on the keyboard.

The main advantage of menu-driven systems is

that they are easy to use.

The main disadvantage of menu-driven systems is

getting to one particular option can often involve
working through many different menu screens.

GCSE Information
Technology
 Main Menu Backup Options
F1 Load new program
F2 Run program F1 Restore a file
F3 List files on disc F2 Make backup copy
F4 Backup options F4 Pressed F3 Main Menu
ESC Quit

F2 Pressed

In this example a Make Backup Copy

menu-driven user Enter name of file
interface has been fred.txt
used to copy a file Select drive
A C
called fred.txt to a
OK CANCEL
user’s floppy disk.

GCSE Information
Technology
Graphical user interfaces
The most widely used type of graphical user
interfaces are WIMP systems.

WIMP stands for Windows Icons Menu Pointer.

Options are represented by small pictures or 'icons'
arranged inside rectangular boxes called windows.

The main advantage of graphical user interfaces is

that they are very easy to use, especially for a
beginner.

The main disadvantage is the amount of memory

space they need. A graphical user interface needs a
lot of RAM to run properly and takesGCSEup a large
Information
amount of hard disk space. Technology
User interface design

•A good user interface should be user-friendly

•Consistency in operation, screen layout etc.
•Colours should be chosen carefully e.g. that are
easy to see
•Sound can be used to do things such as alerting
the user to problems but it should also be
possible to turn it off
•On-line help is often a useful feature

GCSE Information
Technology
9 Application Software
There are two main types of computer
software; system software and
application software.
System software includes the operating
system and utility programs.
Application software caries out user-
related tasks and can be classified as
general-purpose, specialist or tailor-
made.

GCSE Information
Technology
General purpose packages
A general-purpose application package is a type
of software that can perform many different related
tasks.

Word processors, spreadsheets, databases, graphics

and presentation software are all examples of
application packages.

This type of software is sometimes called generic

software. This means, for example, that any one of
the many different word processing packages that
you could buy will all do the same general sorts of
tasks as each other.

GCSE Information
Technology
Most computer users buy application
packages ‘off-the-shelf’. There are several
good reasons for using this type of ready-
made software.
It is relatively cheap;
It is readily available and can be
installed quickly and easily;
It will have been thoroughly tested
so there will be very little chance of
it having any serious faults or ‘bugs’;
It will be well supported with a lot of
books about how to use it available
as well as on-line help and
discussions on the Internet.

GCSE Information
Technology
Common types of general purpose software

Database packages (e.g. MS Access, Lotus

Approach, Paradox) are used to store and
retrieve information;

Spreadsheet packages (e.g. MS Excel, Lotus

123) are used for tasks that involve a lot of
calculations or for the production of graphs and
charts;

Word processing packages (e.g. MS Word,

WordPerfect) are used to produce text based
documents such as letters, reports and memos;

GCSE Information
Technology
Desktop publishing (DTP) packages (e.g.
MS Publisher, PageMaker, PagePlus) are used
to produce professional quality publications
such as posters, books, newsletters,
newspapers and magazines;

Graphics packages (e.g. Paint, PaintBrush,

Serif Draw, Corel Draw) are used to produce
and manipulate artwork;

Computer-aided design (CAD) packages

(e.g. 2D-Design, AutoCAD, TurboCAD) are used
to produce engineering designs and
architectural plans;

GCSE Information
Technology
Communications software (e.g. Internet
Explorer, Netscape Communicator) is used to
access the Internet and send and receive e-
mail;

Presentation graphics packages (e.g.

PowerPoint, Lotus Freelance) are used to create
slide shows and presentations like this one
which can be viewed on-screen or with a data
or overhead projector;

Web page editors (e.g. MS FrontPage,

Macromedia Dreamweaver) are used to create
Web pages.

GCSE Information
Technology
Integrated packages
An integrated package combines many different
types of application together in one single package.

This type of software normally offers facilities for

word processing, spreadsheets, databases, graphics,
presentation and communications.

Integrated packages are much cheaper than buying

many different application packages but their
different applications have a limited number of
features compared with individual application
packages.

Microsoft WORKS is an example of an integrated

package. GCSE Information
Technology
Specialist application
software
Specialist application software performs a single
very specific type of task.

Programs to work out driving routes are one

common example of specialist application
software.
Other examples
include programs to
work out payroll,
calculate accounts,
deal with stock control
and handle
appointments.

GCSE Information
Technology
Tailor-made software
Sometimes an organisation finds that ‘off-the-
shelf’ software will not do exactly what they want.

In this case they might decide to have special

tailor-made, or bespoke software specially
developed for the purpose.

The main drawbacks of this approach are the high

cost and long time that some programs take to
develop.

GCSE Information
Technology
Buying new software
What sort of tasks will the software be used for?

How much does the software cost and how much

money is available to buy it?

What operating system does the software need?

Software will only work with the operating system
that it was designed for;

What are the minimum system requirements for

the software? Every application package has a
minimum set of hardware requirements such as
how much hard disk space and memory are
needed;
GCSE Information
Technology
Will the software be used on a single computer or
on a network? If the software is going to be used
on a network a special version of it may be
needed;

How much support is available for users? This

could be in the form of on-line help, telephone
support lines, internet sites and printed manuals.
More popular software will have more of these
resources;

How easy is the software to install — can an

ordinary user carry out the installation or will an
IT expert be needed to do it?

GCSE Information
Technology
10 Databases
Suppose a school stores information about its
students on record cards. Each student has
their own card; this is their record.

Recor
Denton High School
Pupil Record Card
d
Student Number 0125
Forename Lisa Field
Surname Knapper
Date-of-Birth 12-J an-1985
Form T3

The individual pieces of information recorded on

each card, such as name and date of birth, are
called fields.
GCSE Information
Technology
Files, records and fields
Information in computer-based filing systems
is stored in data files.

A file is a collection of related records.

Related records means that each record in a

file will contain the same sort of information as
all the other records.

A record must have at least one field.

A field contains one individual item of data.

GCSE Information
Technology
 These are the fields
— there are four fields in each record of this file.

ISBN is the key field. This is the field that has a different value in every
record. It is used to distinguish one record from another. Some books
could have the same title, author or publisher. The ISBN is the only way a
particular book can be picked out.
A key field uniquely identifies an individual record.

This is one complete record

- there are five records in this file.

GCSE Information
Technology
Fixed and variable length
records
A fixed length record is one where the length of the
fields in each record has been set to be a certain
maximum number of characters long.

M r
D a m o n
B o l d
3 1 P a r k L a n e

A set amount of storage space is set aside for each

field. If the contents of a field don’t fill the space
completely it is remains empty and is wasted.

GCSE Information
Technology
The problems with fixed length records are:-

Fields very rarely contains the maximum number

of characters allowed which wastes space.

Values sometimes can’t be entered because they

are too large to fit inside the allowed space in a
field.

The advantage of fixed length records is that they

make file processing much easier because the
start and end of each record is always a fixed
number of characters apart. This makes it much
easier to locate both individual records and fields.
GCSE Information
Technology
A variable length record is one where the length
of a field can change to allow data of any size to fit.

M r # D a m o n # B o l d #
3 1 P a r k L a n e #

A special marker (# in this example) indicates

where each field ends. The length of a field
depends upon the data that is placed in it. Only the
space needed for a field is ever used — so none is
wasted.

GCSE Information
Technology
The advantage of variable length records is that
space is not wasted, only the space needed is
ever used.

The main problem with variable length records is

that it is much more difficult to locate the start
and end of individual records and fields.

To separate variable length records each field has

a special character to mark where it ends —
called an ‘end-of-field marker’. When records
need to be located the computer must count
through the end-of-field markers to locate
individual records and fields.

GCSE Information
Technology
 Computerised databases
A database is a structured collection of related data.

It can be a single file that contains a large number

of records or a collection of files.

Many modern databases are described as being

relational.

A relational database stores data in tables that

are linked together using common fields.

GCSE Information
Technology
 Members
Member number
Forename
Surname
Address line 1
Loans
Address line 2
Member number
Telephone number
Video number
Date loaned
Length of loan
Date due Videos
Total cost Video number
Title
Certificate
Category
Cost per day

Linked data tables in a relational

database
GCSE Information
Technology
File operations
File operations are the different things that can be
done to a computer file. The main types of file
operation are searching, sorting, updating and
merging.
Searchin
g
Searching, or interrogating a file, involves
looking for an individual record or group of
records that match a certain condition.
Searches are also called queries.
To search a database the user must enter a
query.
The query tells the software which fields to look
at in each record and what to look for. GCSE Information
Technology
Sorting
Sorting involves putting the records in a file into
a particular order, such as alphabetical order.

Merging
Merging involves combining two files to produce
one new file.
This can be done by merging a file of new records
to be added with another file that contains all of
the existing records — called the master file.

GCSE Information
Technology
Updating
The information stored in computer files must be
kept up-to-date or it will cause problems for the
business or organisation that’s using it.
To keep a file up-to-date it must be regularly
updated. This involves inserting, deleting and
amending records.
When a new record needs to be added to a file, it is
inserted.
Records are deleted when they are no longer
needed.
Records are amended when the data in one or
more of the fields needs to be altered for some
reason. GCSE Information
Technology
Details of all the changes that need to be made to
a master file are often collected together in a
transaction file.
The master file is updated by comparing it with
the transaction file and making changes to any
records that appear in both files.
Normally at least three ‘generations’ of a master
file are kept for backup purposes.
If the latest version of the master file is damaged
it can be recreated by re-running the previous
update using the old master and transaction files.

GCSE Information
Technology
 Master File Transactions
(Day 1) for Day 1

grandfather

Update

Master File Transactions

(Day 2) for Day 2

father

Update

The grandfather-father-
Master File son method of updating
(Day 3)

son
GCSE Information
Technology
Backing up on-line databases
An on-line database is constantly being
updated.
To make sure no data is lost in the event of
hardware failure special back-up methods are
used.
Two commonly used methods are:-
Transaction logging
RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive
Disks)

GCSE Information
Technology
Database packages
Most databases are set-up using a database
package.
A typical database package will allow a user to:
Create a file by entering their own field
definitions.
Specify automatic validation checks for fields.
Add new fields to records or delete fields that
are no longer needed.
Add, edit and delete records in a file.
Perform simple searches and complex searches
using more than one condition.
GCSE Information
Technology
Import data from other applications
software;
Export data in standard file formats to
other applications software;
Create customised report forms for output;
Create customised data entry screens;
Create customised menu screens and link
them menu together;
Link files together using common fields.

GCSE Information
Technology
11 Spreadsheets
A spreadsheet package is a general purpose
computer package that is designed to perform
calculations.
A spreadsheet is a table which is divided into rows
and columns.
Column B

Row
7

Cell B7

GCSE Information
Technology
Columns have a letter at the top and rows
have a number at the side.

Lines divide the rows and columns up into

boxes called cells.

A cell can contain text, a number or a

formula.

Individual cells are identified by their cell

reference number which normally contains a
column letter and a row number.

GCSE Information
Technology
A formula is used on a spreadsheet to perform
a calculation using the numbers in other cells.
The result of the calculation is displayed in the
cell where the formula has been entered.
A simple formula can be used to add, subtract,
multiply or divide numbers.
To carry out these sorts of calculation these
symbols are used in a formula:
+ to add
- to subtract
* to multiply
/ to divide
GCSE Information
Technology
Suppose you wanted to add two numbers on a
spreadsheet together.

If the numbers were in cells A1 and A2 the formula

that you would need to enter would be something
like

= A1+A2
 
To make it easier to enter a longer more
complicated formula spreadsheet packages also
have special mathematical functions built-in.

Two of the most commonly used functions are used

to calculate either the SUM or AVERAGE of a
range of cells. GCSE Information
Technology
Suppose, for example, that you had a formula
like
=A1+A2+A3+A4+A5+A6+A7+A8+A9+A1
0
This formula would add up all of the numbers
in cells A1 to A10.
Instead of typing in such a long formula, the
SUM function could be used.
On most spreadsheets the formula would be
something like :
= SUM (A1: A10)

GCSE Information
Technology
Similarly, to work out the average of the
numbers in cells A1 to A10, the AVERAGE
function could be used.
On most spreadsheets the formula would be
something like:
= AVERAGE (A1: A10)
Exactly what you need to type in will depend
upon the spreadsheet package that you are
using.
If a number of cells need the same formula it
can be copied and pasted in the same way as
text.

GCSE Information
Technology
Spreadsheet packages have built-in formatting
options which allow you to change the way a
spreadsheet looks.

Anything that affects the appearance of a cell is

called a cell format.

Some of the more commonly used cell

formatting options are:-
Changing font size and style
Making text bold, italic or underlined
Changing text alignment
Adding borders and lines
Inserting extra rows and columns
Changing column width and row
height
Adding colour GCSE Information
Technology
Anything that affects the appearance of numbers
in a cell is called a data format.

Some of the more commonly used cell

formatting options are:-
Decimal
Currency
Date

GCSE Information
Technology
One very useful feature of spreadsheet package
is the sort facility.
This allows the columns or rows of a
spreadsheet to be sorted into alphabetical or
numerical order of a value in a particular row
or column.

GCSE Information
Technology
Most spreadsheet packages include facilities for
representing information in the form of a graph or
chart.
The more common types of charts and graphs
that are used are bar charts, pie charts and
line graphs.
A chart wizard gives step-by-step help when
drawing a graph or chart.

The first step in

creating a graph
or chart is to
enter the data
on the
spreadsheet.
GCSE Information
Technology
The next step is to
choose the type of
chart or graph. A chart
wizard can be used to
help with this.

GCSE Information
Technology
The graph is automatically drawn by the
spreadsheet software. It can then be copied and
pasted into other applications if required.

30

25

20

15

10

0
B r ooksi de C or onati on Str eet E astE nder s E mmer dal e Home&A way Nei ghbour s

GCSE Information
Technology
12 Word processing

A word processor can be used to write, edit, format

and print text.
Before word processors, printed documents were
typed directly on to the paper using manual
typewriters.
The main problem with using typewriters was that if a
mistake was made it could not be corrected without
leaving any trace.
If a typist made too many mistakes, an entire
document would have to be typed out again.
This method of producing printed documents was
very slow and time-consuming.

GCSE Information
Technology
Common functions of word
processors
The style of the text can be changed.
Different styles of text are called fonts.
Each font has its own name.

This font is called Broadway

This font is called Bookman Old Style
This font is called Rockwell

GCSE Information
Technology
Other effects that can be used to change the
appearance of text are options to make it bold,
italic or underlined.
The cut facility of a word processor allows you
to choose a section of text, 'cut it out‘ and
'paste' it back in another place or just throw it
away.
The copy facility allows you to choose part of
your text and then paste a copy of it elsewhere
in your document.
Word-wrap means that when you are typing
you don’t have to press the enter key  at the
end of a line; the word processor will begin a
new line whenever one is needed.
GCSE Information
Technology
Tabulation allows the tab key  to be set to jump
forward a pre-set distance across the page each
time it is pressed.

Text in this column is lined up at the tab

stop which is at 10cm on the ruler line.

GCSE Information
Technology
Search and replace allows you to tell a word
processor to look for one word and replace it
with another.
In the example shown below the user wants
the word ‘Chalk’ replaced by the word
‘Cheese’

GCSE Information
Technology
Line spacing is used to change the amount of
space between lines of text. Normal text is single
spaced.
Other common lline spacing options available in a
typical word processing package include ‘single’,
‘1.5 times’, and ‘double’.

GCSE Information
Technology
A spell checker uses a built-in dictionary to
check the spellings in your text.
When a spell checker finds words that are
unknown, it will offer possible alternatives from its
dictionary and ask if you want to choose a
replacement, delete the unknown word
completely, keep the word as it is, or enter your
own alternative word.

GCSE Information
Technology
The import facility makes it possible to include
diagrams and pictures produced using other
software packages on the page along with your
text.
The export facility is simply the opposite of
import. Export allows you to transfer work
produced using the word processor into other
software packages.

GCSE Information
Technology
Justification is a feature that adds extra
spaces to a block of text to line it up in a
particular way.
Text can be left justified, right justified,
centred or fully justified.
The text opposite is left “It was the best of times, it was the worst of
justified. This means that each times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the
line of text is lined up on the left age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief,
hand side only. it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the
season of Light,

The text opposite is fully it was the season before of Darkness, it was
justified. This means that each the spring of hope, it was the winter of
line of text is lined up on both despair, we had everything before us, we had
the left and right hand sides. nothing before us, we were all going direct to
heaven, we were all going direct the other
way

GCSE Information
Technology
The text opposite is centred. — in short, the period was so far like the
This means that each line of text present period, that some of its noisiest
is lined up in the centre of the authorities insisted on its being received, for
page. good or for evil, in the superlative degree of
comparison only.”

The text opposite is right A Tale of Two Cities

aligned. This means that each By Charles Dickens
line of text is lined up on the
right hand side only.

GCSE Information
Technology
Mail merging allows the user to create a
standard letter and then merge it with data
from a spreadsheet, database or other text file.
This file is called the source data file.
During the merging process data from fields in
individual records in the source data file is
inserted into spaces that have been specially
marked in the standard letter.
This produces a ‘personalised’ letter is produced
for each record in the source data file.

GCSE Information
Technology
A source data file is either prepared or imported from an existing file.
Title Forename Surname Address 1 Address 2 Address 3 Postcode
Mr. Stephen Davidson 31 Cornwallis Road Boxford Turnbridge TB19 2XZ
Mr. Peter Dewhurst 12 Lilac Grove Hall Grange Turnbridge TB17 6EX
Mrs. J uila Grafton 31 Shelbourne Road Brampton Turnbridge TB12 7TB
Miss Betty Grant 19 Hall Drive Evesham Rockwell RW9 14XT
Ms Anthony Howarth 34 Peel Street Evesham Rockwell RW2 12BQ

A standard letter is written and ‘markers’ are placed in it to indicate where

data from the source data file is to be inserted into each individual letter.

GCSE Information
Technology
The standard letter is merged with data
from the source data file to produce
individual letters.

GCSE Information
Technology
Advantages of word processing
Mistakes can be corrected easily without leaving
any trace;
Much better presentation of text is possible with
formatting features such as different font styles
and sizes, coloured text and justification;
Text can be easily inserted, deleted or
rearranged without having to start again;
Documents can be saved on disk and used again
whenever necessary;

GCSE Information
Technology
Pictures, graphs, tables and charts can be easily
included alongside text;
Multiple copies of the same document can be
easily produced;
Standard letters can be mass-produced very
quickly using mail merge;
Documents can be transferred instantly
anywhere in the world via electronic
communications links;
Spelling and grammar can be checked
automatically.

GCSE Information
Technology
13 Desktop publishing
Desktop publishing is the use of a desktop
publishing package on a computer to produce
publications such as newspapers, magazines and
books.
The DTP process is concerned with designing the
layout of the pages in a publication.
The contents are normally prepared, using a word
processing package for text and a graphics package
for pictures, diagrams and other illustrations.
Individual page contents are imported into the
desktop publishing package, which is used to
organise their layout and appearance.
GCSE Information
Technology
Parts of a DTP system
Large high resolution monitor
Scanner

Laser printer for high quality output

High specification computer

GCSE Information
Technology
The stages of desktop
publishing
1. The contents of the publication are
prepared first.
Text is prepared using a word processing
package and checked for any mistakes
using the spell check facility.
Graphics are prepared using a graphics
package to create images ‘from scratch’
or 'tidy up' images from other sources.

GCSE Information
Technology
2. The general layout of the pages is
designed and templates are created.
A template defines the standard layout for a
page such as how many columns of text are
needed and where spaces must be left for
graphics.
Once a template has been set up it can be used
to create as many individual pages as required
each with the same basic layout.
This greatly reduces the time that it takes to
organise the layout of each page.

GCSE Information
Technology
 banner headline

text column graphic

GCSE Information
Technology
3. The text and graphics are imported and
put into place.
If text doesn't fit on a page it can be
automatically ‘overflowed’ onto the next page.
In some DTP applications text is placed inside
rectangular boxes called ‘frames’.
Frames can have their size adjusted and be
linked together if text doesn't fit.

GCSE Information
Technology
 text frame

GCSE Information
Technology
When text overlaps a graphic it can be ‘flowed’
or ‘wrapped’ around the graphic — this is shown
below.

GCSE Information
Technology
4. Once the layout has been finalised the
completed publication is printed and
'proof read' to check for any errors.
Any necessary corrections or changes to the
layout can then be made before a final high
quality ‘master copy’ is printed using a laser
printer.
Further copies can be made on a
photocopying machine.
Alternatively, the DTP file can be posted to a
professional printing company on disk or
sent via e-mail.

GCSE Information
Technology
Common features of DTP
packages
Fonts
A good DTP package will include a large
variety of fonts which can be whatever size the
user requires.
Styles
Styles allow the user to define the font style,
size and colour of text.
Once a style has been defined it can be
applied to any part of the text whenever
necessary.
This saves time when text is being formatted
and helps to keep its appearance consistent
GCSE Information
Technology
GCSE Information
Technology
Borders
Borders can be used to make objects stand out

GCSE Information
Technology
Colour
A good DTP package will include a large choice of colours which
can be used to fill in areas of a page or make text, borders and
lines stand out more

Various tints, shades and patterns of colour are usually offered

along with the facility for creating a customised colour scheme
for a publication.

Clipart
DTP packages often have a library of artwork supplied with them
from which graphics can be copied and pasted into a publication.

GCSE Information
Technology
Character spacing
The spacing between
characters can be adjusted
by using a feature called
kerning.
All DTP packages offer this
facility along with options to
shrink and stretch text

Line spacing
The spacing between
lines can be changed by
adjusting the leading.

GCSE Information
Technology
Design wizards
A design wizards provides step-by-step help when
creating common types of publication such as
newspapers, flyers and greetings cards.

GCSE Information
Technology
Text columns
DTP packages all offer a
facility which allows the
user to set up the pages
of a publication to have a
certain number of text
columns.

GCSE Information
Technology
14 Graphics packages

A graphics package is an application that can

be used to create and manipulate images on a
computer.

There are two main types of graphics package:

painting packages
drawing packages

GCSE Information
Technology
Painting packages

A painting package produces images by

changing the colour of pixels on the screen
These are coded as a pattern of bits to create
a bitmapped graphics file.
Bitmapped graphics are used for images such
as scanned photographs or pictures taken
with a digital camera.
The main advantage offered by this type of
graphic is that individual pixels can be
changed which makes very detailed editing
possible.

GCSE Information
Technology
Disadvantages of painting packages

Individual parts of an image cannot be

resized; only the whole picture can be
increased or decreased in size.
Information has to be stored about every
pixel in an image which produces files that
use large amounts of backing storage space.
Examples of graphics packages that produce
bitmapped images include:-
MS Paint, PC Paintbrush, Adobe Photoshop
and JASC’s Paint Shop Pro.

GCSE Information
Technology
Drawing packages

A drawing package produces images that are

made up from coloured lines and shapes such as
circles, squares and rectangles.
When an image is saved it is stored in a vector
graphics file as a series of instructions, which
can be used to recreate it.
The main advantages of vector graphics are:
They use less storage space than bitmap
graphics;
Each part of an image is treated as a separate
object, which means that individual parts can
be easily modified.
GCSE Information
Technology
Disadvantages of drawing packages

The disadvantage of vector graphics is that they

don’t look as realistic as bitmap graphics.

Examples of drawing graphics packages include

CorelDraw, Micrographix Designer and
computer aided design (CAD) packages such as
AutoCAD.

GCSE Information
Technology
Common features of graphics
packages
Drawing straight lines and ‘freehand’ lines;
Drawing regular pre-defined shapes like
squares, rectangles and circles using a special
‘tool’;
Entering text and changing the style and size of
font;
Changing the size of an object, or scaling
Rotating objects in either clockwise or
anticlockwise by specifying the direction and
angle of rotation.
Stretching objects either horizontally or
vertically. GCSE Information
Technology
A paint palette from which different
colours and patterns can be chosen.

A fill option for colouring in a shape

or area on the screen with a colour
or pattern from the paint palette.
Most graphics
packages have
a built-in
library of
clipart
pictures.

GCSE Information
Technology
Zoom or magnify is a feature that allows an
area of the screen to be seen close up for
detailed work.
Special brushes such as an airbrush can be
used to achieve different paint effects on the
screen.
In most the rubber tool for erasing any mistakes or
unwanted parts of an image
graphics the fill tool
these the magnifying tool
features are the brush tool
chosen from
a toolbar or tools for drawing pre-defined shapes

tool palette
where they
are
displayed as
icons. GCSE Information
Technology
Exporting is a special way of saving a file
produced using a graphics package so that it can
be used in another application package.

When an exported
file is needed in
another application
it is opened in a
special way called
importing.

GCSE Information
Technology
Computer-aided design and
manufacture
Computer-aided design, or CAD, is the
use of a computer to display designs,
accept any changes to them and calculate
and display the results.
CAD has many different applications,
which include:-
Designing new cars;
Bridge and building design and
testing;
Printed circuit board (PCB) design;
Designing new aircraft;
Designing fitted kitchens. GCSE Information
Technology
GCSE Information
Technology
Making changes to a design requires a large
number of complex calculations.
These need to be performed as quickly as
possible so that their effect can be viewed
straight away.
A powerful processor is required for this.
A CAD system also needs a high-resolution
monitor so that clear close-up detail can be seen
on the screen.
Input to CAD systems is normally given using a
mouse and keyboard but other input devices
such as graphic tablets and scanners are also
used.
Output from a CAD system is produced using a
GCSE Information
Technology
The advantages of CAD systems are:-
Changes to a design can be made quickly and their
effects seen straight away;
Designs can be viewed from any angle without
being re-drawn;
Designs can be tested without the need to build
expensive models or prototypes;
Drawings can be stored on disk and re-used at any
time;
Designs can be instantly sent anywhere in the world
using electronic communications;
Designs can be used directly in computer aided
manufacturing processes.
GCSE Information
Technology
Computer-aided manufacture, or CAM, is the
use of a computer to control all or part of a
manufacturing process.
Some examples of CAM include the production of
printed circuit boards, car manufacture, pattern
cutting for clothing manufacture and making
postage stamps.
Very often a CAM process follows directly on from
a CAD process, in such cases the complete
design and manufacture process is called
CAD/CAM.
The main advantage of this approach is that the
CAD design can be used to generate the program
which will control the manufacturing process.
GCSE Information
Technology
The student shown in this picture has
used CAD software to prepare a design
which he is going to manufacture using
the milling machine connected to the
computer behind him.

GCSE Information
Technology
The advantages of CAM systems are:-
Products can be made very accurately and
consistently;
Around the clock production is much cheaper;
A product's design can be modified without the
need to bring production to a complete
standstill;
Waste can be kept to a minimum.

GCSE Information
Technology
15 Models and Simulations

Computer models are used to predict and

investigate how a device or process might
behave given a certain set of conditions.
The rules of a model describe an object or
process and the variables that can be changed
to affect the way it behaves.
Incomplete or poorly expressed rules will
make inaccurate and unreliable predictions.

GCSE Information
Technology
Common uses for computer
models
•Car manufacturers use models to test the effects of
crashes on new cars, which is a lot more cost effective
than building and crashing real cars
•Civil engineers use models to predict the effects of
natural hazards such as strong winds or earthquakes on
designs for new buildings and bridges
•Many businesses use financial models to investigate
ways of cutting down costs and improving their
profitability
•Weather forecasting services use very complicated
models of the atmosphere to predict how the weather will
behave

GCSE Information
Technology
How computer models are
built
•Spreadsheet packages
•Special programming languages e.g.
SIMSCRIPT and SIMULA
•Application packages specially designed for
modelling e.g. ‘Model Builder’

GCSE Information
Technology
Simulations

•A computer simulation is a special type of

computer model which recreates a system, that
might exist outside the computer
•Often used to train people how to deal with
situations that are too difficult, expensive or
dangerous to recreate and practise for real
•Best example of a simulation is a flight
simulator

GCSE Information
Technology
Flight simulators

•A flight simulator consists of a working replica

of the flight deck of an aeroplane, which is
mounted on hydraulic supports that are used to
create a realistic feeling of movement.
•Simulation software provides a view of the
simulated outside world through the cockpit
window, controls the instrument readings and
responds to commands given by the pilot.
•The main advantage is that pilots can practise
how to deal with dangerous situations without
putting lives at risk or damaging expensive
equipment. GCSE Information
Technology
Advantages
•Expensive prototypes or full size mock-ups don’t
need to be built
•No equipment is damaged
•People are not put in any danger
•Modifications can be made easily and re-tested
quickly
Disadvantages
•The results depend on how good the model is —
a poor model will give unreliable results
•Simulations can’t completely re-create the
pressures that a person might be under in a real-
life situation
GCSE Information
Technology
16 The System life cycle

•The system life cycle is a series of stages

that are worked through during the
development of a new information system.
•A lot of time and money can be wasted if a
system is developed that doesn’t work
properly or do exactly what is required of it.
•A new system is much more likely to be
successful if it is carefully planned and
developed

GCSE Information
Technology
 The stages of the system life cycle

Feasibility Study

Maintenance Analysis

Implementation Design

GCSE Information
Technology
Feasibility study

•The first stage of the system life cycle

•This is an investigation that is carried out by a
systems analyst to find out what the main problems
are with the existing system and if it is technically
possible and cost-effective to solve these problems
by developing a computer based solution.

GCSE Information
Technology
Feasibility report contents

•A description of the existing system outlining what

is being done and how it is being done;
•A set of problem statements describing exactly
what the problems are with the existing system;
•A set of system objectives which describe what the
new system must be able to do;
•A description of some alternative solutions;
•A description of the technical, economic, legal and
social factors that have been considered;
•A recommended course of action.
GCSE Information
Technology
Analysis
•During the analysis stage systems analysts
investigate the existing system to identify exactly
what the problems are with the existing system
•Systems analysts will use a variety of fact-finding
methods to gather information e.g.
•Questionnaires
•Interviews
•Observation
•Examining documents

GCSE Information
Technology
Data Flow diagrams and
systems flowcharts

•Once the systems analysts have completed their

investigation they produce a detailed description of
how the existing system works.
•Methods used to help describe the system include
data flow diagrams and systems flowcharts

GCSE Information
Technology
Symbols used in DFDs
External entity – data source or data
destination, for example people who
generate data such as a customer
order, or receive information such as an
invoice.

Process – an operation performed on

the data. The two lines are optional; the
top section of the box can be used to
label the process, the middle to give a
brief explanation, the bottom to say
where the process takes place.

Data store – such as a file held on disk

or a batch of documents

Data flow – the arrow represents

movement between entities, processes
or data stores. The arrow should be
labelled to describe what data is
involved.

GCSE Information
Technology
Data flow diagram for a
theatre booking system.

Ticket
requirements Check
bookings
Customer
Available
seats

Name,
address,
Customer ID, seat
credit card
numbers, time, date, Bookings
Customers Make play ID
booking

Seat numbers, time,

date, play title

Title, price, Ticket

time Print details Customer
Plays
tickets

GCSE Information
Technology
The symbols used in
flowcharts

Process

Any Input
or e.g. or
Output Printer Display

Any storage e.g. or

Disk Tape

GCSE Information
Technology
 A systems flowchart

Sorted
T ransactions T ransactions
Sort
T ape T ape

O ld M aster N ew M aster
U pdate
T ape T ape

GCSE Information
Technology
Design
•Alternative possible solutions are identified
•Alternative solutions evaluated
•The best solution is identified
•A design specification is produced containing
information about:
•Input
•Output
•Data storage
•User interface
•Backup and recovery procedures
•Security procedures
•Test plan
GCSE Information
Technology
Typical format for a test
plan

Test No Test Data Purpose Expected Result Actual Result

1 Enter incorrect mark ‘–1’ Test input mark Mark rejected  

function

2 Enter incorrect mark ‘45’ Test input mark Mark accepted  

function

3 Enter new student with Test ‘Add new ‘David Cooke’ added to  
student_number ‘100’ student’ the student database
forename ‘David’ function
surname ‘Cooke’

GCSE Information
Technology
Implementation
This stage involves:
•Setting up the system so that it matches the
design specification
•Testing carried out using the plan to make sure
that all the parts of the system work correctly with
normal, extreme and erroneous data
•Normal test data is used to check that a system can handle the
sort of data that would be expected during day-to-day use
•Extreme test data is used to check that a system can cope with
data that lies on the boundaries of what is acceptable
•Erroneous (or exceptional) test data is used to check that a
system can identify data that is wrong and reject it

GCSE Information
Technology
Testing using normal,
extreme and erroneous data
Test No Test Data Purpose Expected Result Actual Result

1 Enter a mark of ‘50’ ; this is Test input mark function Mark accepted  
within the range

2 Enter a mark of ‘0’ ; Test input mark function Mark accepted  

this is on the limit of the
range

3 Enter a mark of ‘100’ ;this is Test input mark function Mark accepted  
on the limit of the range

4 Enter a mark of ‘101’ ;this is Test input mark function Mark rejected  
out of the range

GCSE Information
Technology
 Installing the new system

Might include:
•Installing any new hardware and software
•Transferring data from the existing system to the
new one
•Training users how to operate the new system

GCSE Information
Technology
 Producing documentation
•Technical documentation
•the system design specification;
•systems flowcharts;
•data flow diagrams;
•a description of the various parts of the system and what each one does;
•screen layouts and user interface designs;
•the test plan.

•User documentation
•a description of what the system is designed to do;
•minimum hardware and software requirements of the system;
•instructions on how to load and run the system;
•detailed instructions on how to operate each part of the system;
•Error messages, their meaning and how to deal with them.
•Where to get more help, such as telephone support lines and on-line
tutorials.
GCSE Information
Technology
 Post-implementation review

Carried out after the new system has been running

for a few weeks or months to identify any
modifications that may need to be made.

Maintenance
A new information system may need to be changed
due to:
•Change in needs of user
•Problems not found during testing
•Improvements required in the way the system
works
GCSE Information
Technology
17 Computer Networks
•A computer network is a collection of computers linked
together so that they can communicate with each other
•A computer that is not connected to a network is called a
stand-alone computer
•There are two different sorts of computer network:
•‘Local Area Network’ or ‘LAN’ - the computers are all in
the same building or in different buildings on one site
permanently connected to each other with special
cables.
•‘Wide Area Network’ or ‘WAN’ - the computers are
spread over a large geographical area not permanently
connected to each other communicate using telephone
lines, radio transmitters or satellite links.

GCSE Information
Technology
 Advantages of a LAN
•Workstations can share peripheral devices like printers. This
is cheaper than buying a printer for every workstation;
•Workstations don’t necessarily need their own hard disk or
CD-ROM drives which makes them cheaper to buy than
stand-alone PC’s;
•Users can save their work centrally on the network’s file
server. This means that they can retrieve their work from
any workstation on the network. They don’t need to go back
to the same workstation all the time;
•Users can communicate with each other and transfer data
between workstations very easily;
•One copy of each application package such as a word
processor, spreadsheet etc can be loaded onto the file server
and shared by all users. When a new version comes out, it
only has to be loaded onto the server instead ofGCSE
onto every
Information
Technology
 Disadvantages of a LAN
•Special security measures are needed to stop users from
using programs and data that they shouldn’t have access to;
•Networks are difficult to set up and must be maintained by
skilled ICT Technicians;
•If the file server develops a serious fault all the users are
affected, rather than just one user in the case of a stand-
alone machine.

GCSE Information
Technology
 Network security
measures
•To protect programs and data
•Main threats come from other users and hackers
•Data can be kept secure by giving each network user their
own user identity and password
•Unauthorised access can be reduced by allowing different
users different levels of access
•Local area networks can be protected by physically
restricting access to the computer room by locking the door
or providing users with an entry code or special ‘swipe card’
key.

GCSE Information
Technology
 Wide Area Network
(WAN)
•Computers in a wide area network are often connected to
each other using telephone lines.
•When a computer uses an ordinary telephone line to
connect to another computer, a modem is needed at each
end of the link.
•If an entire LAN needs to be connected to a WAN a special
gateway needs to be set-up.

GCSE Information
Technology
A Wide Area Network
(WAN) Workstation

Workstation

Workstation

Print Server File Server

Printer

Gateway Modem

Remote PC

Remote PC Modem

network
cables
telephone
lines
GCSE Information
Technology
 Modems

•A modem converts a digital signal to an equivalent

analogue signal so that it can be sent down a telephone line.

telephone line
Computer Modem Modem Computer

digital signal analogue signal digital signal

01001 01001

GCSE Information
Technology
18 Communication

One of the most important ways that information

technology is used today is to distribute, exchange
and share information. Electronic communication
systems are what we use to do this. The most
widely used forms of electronic communication are
Viewdata, e-mail, videoconferencing,
computer networks and the Internet.

GCSE Information
Technology
 Viewdata
•Viewdata, or Videotext, looks like teletext but is different
because, unlike teletext, it allows two-way communication to
take place transmitted along telephone lines via a modem.
•The most common use of Viewdata is by travel agents to
book holidays.

GCSE Information
Technology
 Faxes
•A fax machine scans paper documents and
converts them into digital format.
•The digital version is then converted into
analogue format and sent over an ordinary
telephone line to another fax machine.
•The fax machine at the receiving end converts
the analogue information back into digital format
and reproduces an exact hard copy of the original
document.
•Faxes are particularly useful for transferring
images such as plans, drawings or documents with
signatures between remote locations when it is
important that an identical copy of the original is
received at the other end. GCSE Information
Technology
 E-mail
•Used to send messages from one computer to
another
•Can be sent between computers on a local area
network or between computers on the Internet
•Some advantages of e-mail:
•Arrives at its destination in at most a few
hours
•Send and receive e-mail anywhere in the
world, at any time
•One e-mail message can be sent to a group of
people
•Registered e-mail can be sent GCSE Information
Technology
 Disadvantages of e-mail

•Some workers receive so many e-mails that they

are unable to answer them all
•Computer viruses are often sent by e-mail
•Can send junk mail just as with conventional post

GCSE Information
Technology
 Videoconferencing
The use of a computer to send sound and video
images from one computer to another in real time.
To videoconference you need:
•A computer with a large memory and a fast processor
which can handle the large amount of data that video
pictures contain
•A digital video camera to capture the video pictures at
your end of the link
•A microphone or telephone hand-set to capture the
sound that goes with your pictures;
•Access to an ISDN telephone line. This is because
ordinary telephone lines weren’t designed to cope with
the large amount of data that needs to be sent along
them for videoconferencing; GCSE Information
Technology
 Advantages of
videoconferencing
•You can communicate with other people over
long distances and see them as well as hear them
•Videoconferencing is more personal than just a
telephone call
•Businesses can use videoconferencing to hold
meetings which many people can be involved in
•There is less need for people to travel

GCSE Information
Technology
Disadvantages of
videoconferencing
•The hardware and software needed are very
expensive
•Not many people have videoconferencing
systems
•ISDN lines are needed which are expensive to set-
up and use
•There is no substitute for a face-to-face meeting.

GCSE Information
Technology
 Teleworking
Telecommuting is when people work from home
instead of travelling to work and use methods of
electronic communication such as the telephone,
fax machine, e-mail, the Internet and
videoconferencing to communicate with the
outside world.
Advantages:
•Time isn’t wasted travelling to and from work;
•Cars are kept off the roads which helps the environment;
•Working at home is less stressful and it is much easier to
concentrate;
•Working hours are more flexible and can be fitted around other
things that need doing such as collecting children from school;
•People who live large distances away from eachGCSE
other can
Information
work together without having to meet in person;Technology
 Disadvantages of
teleworking
•Workers may miss the company of their co-
workers and feel isolated
•Having your workplace at home might mean that
you end up doing too much work and not having
enough time off
•It is more difficult for mangers to monitor and
control the workforce

GCSE Information
Technology
19 The Internet

•The Internet links private PCs, public networks

and business networks together using telephone
lines to form one vast world-wide network. It allows
computer users to share and exchange information
with each other wherever they are in the world.
•information on the Internet comes in many
different formats. E.g.simple e-mail text files,
music, video clips, computer software

GCSE Information
Technology
 Connecting to the Internet
•A computer with a modem and access to a telephone line is
needed.
•Faster connection is possible with a special type of digital
telephone line called an ISDN line which doesn’t need a
modem.
•Larger organisations use a leased line
•A leased line is a private telephone line which is
permanently open 24 hours a day.
•Very high speed digital lines are available but these cost
hundreds of thousands of pounds per year to use. computers
on a local area network need to be connected to the Internet
using an ISDN or leased line a device called a router
•A router is a special piece of hardware which co-ordinates
the switching of messages between the computers and the
rest of the Internet.
GCSE Information
•Find an Internet Service Provider (ISP) Technology
 The World Wide Web
(WWW)
•World Wide Web is largest part of the Internet
•Pages of information begin at ‘home page’
•Pages are linked together using hypertext
•Hypertext generated using Hypertext Mark-up language or
HTML

GCSE Information
Technology
 Browsers
•To browse or ‘surf’ the Internet a browser program is
required
•Microsoft Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator use
search engines to search for information by entering
keywords

GCSE Information
Technology
 URLs

•Uniform Resource Locator

•These give the location of individual sites on the
World Wide Web
•Most start with http//:www.
•They often reveal the country of origin such as
.uk for the United Kingdom. They also indicate
whether the site is commercial with either .co or
.com, a government organisation with .gov, or an
academic organisation with .ac

GCSE Information
Technology
 Online shopping
•Allow Internet users to buy goods or services online any time day
or night without needing to travel anywhere or get pushed around
in crowded shops
•Some companies do all of their business over the Internet

GCSE Information
Technology
 Advantages of online
shopping
•Money doesn’t have to be spent on normal business overheads like
renting shops and paying employees.

•Customers can be offered a much wider choice of goods because

they can be ordered from suppliers as required rather than having
to be kept available on the shelves all the time.

•Money is not tied up in unsold stock or wasted on products that

aren’t popular.

•Data about customers and their buying habits can be collected

directly and used to offer a much more personalised service tailored
to suit the needs of an individual customer.

GCSE Information
Technology
 Disadvantages of online
shopping
•Online transactions require users to enter a debit or credit card
number before a purchase can be completed. There is a danger of
these numbers being intercepted by hackers during transmission
and used to make unauthorised purchases. The use of encryption
and smart cards can help to protect against this.

•Criminals can set up fake web sites offering goods or services

often using the name of a genuine company. This can lead to
people spending money on goods and services that they will never
receive as well as damaging the reputation of a genuine business.

•It is much easier for a business to gather information about its

rivals by simply accessing their web sites — this can make it much
harder to remain competitive.

GCSE Information
Technology
 Online booking systems

•Allow Internet users to check the availability of

and book things like:
•Theatre, cinema and concert tickets
•Seats on coaches, trains and aeroplanes
•Hotel rooms

•An online booking system is essentially a web site

that can be used to access a remote database

GCSE Information
Technology
 Dangers of the Internet

•Hackers
•Firewall software
•Viruses
•Often spread via e-mail
•Virus checking programs
•Undesirable material
•Software to block sites
•Adult supervision
•Filtered service from ISP
GCSE Information
Technology
 Advantages of the Internet
•Easy communication with other people
•Valuable learning resource because Internet skills
will be needed for jobs in the future
•Enables more people to work from home
•A vast amount of information can be accessed
•Up-to-date information can be accessed on-line
without the need to await publication
•Publishing documents on the Internet saves paper
•A valuable resource for companies to advertise
and conduct business

GCSE Information
Technology
 Disadvantages of the Internet
•Much of the information isn’t checked and may be
incorrect or irrelevant
•A large amount of undesirable material, such as
pornography, is readily available
•Messages sent across the Internet can be easily
intercepted and are open to abuse by others
•Large telephone bills can easily be run up
•Too much time spent on the Internet could result
in a lack of face-to-face interaction with others and
a loss of social skills
•Going on-line runs the risk of hackers or viruses
being able to damage your computer
GCSE Information
Technology
20 Web Design Packages

•Web pages are created using Hypertext mark-up

language (HTML) which is a computer
programming language
•Users who have no knowledge of HTML can use
Web design packages to produce web pages
•WYSIWYG environment
•Pages automatically converted to HTML code

GCSE Information
Technology
 Hyperlinks
•A piece of text or a graphic that contains the
address of another location on the Web
•Creation of hyperlinks is a basic feature of any
Web design package

GCSE Information
Technology
 Hot spots
•Area on an object that contains a hyperlink
•To create a hot spot an active area must be
defined on an object and a hyperlink associated
with it

hot spot shape

tools

active
area

GCSE Information
Technology
 Tables
•Used to organise and present information on a
web page
•Help to make pay layouts more interesting
•A good web design package will allow:
Tables to be created
The size of a group of cells or an individual cell
to be adjusted
Rows and columns to be inserted or deleted
Text or other objects within cells to be
automatically aligned
Cells to be filled with colours, patterns or
graphics GCSE Information
Technology
 Good Web design
•Write clearly and be brief.
•Don’t overcrowd pages with large amounts of text and
graphics.
•Don’t use a lot of graphics — this can make pages take a
long time to load.
•Put the most important items at the top of a page — this
will attract attention and make people want to look at the
rest of the page.
•Use headings and lists to summarise topics so that readers
can scan the contents of pages quickly.
•Use bold and italic text to attract attention rather than
special effects such as animated or flashing text, which can
be annoying.
•Try to make your site easy to navigate by using frames or
putting a table of contents at the beginning of a GCSE Information
section.
Technology
21 Computer Crime

•Businesses rely on data stored on computer

systems
•Lost or damaged data is usually due to human
error
•Sometimes data is deliberately damaged or
stolen
•Businesses must protect their data and ensure
they can get it back if anything does happen

GCSE Information
Technology
 Computer Crime
•It is often easy to misuse data stored on a
computer because:
•Alterations can be made without leaving a trace
•Very large amounts of data can be stored and searched
quickly
•Data can be instantly transferred to other locations
using e-mail and the Internet
•Communications links used to connect computer
systems together are vulnerable to attack from hackers.
Some hackers create aggressive software that can
manipulate or destroy computer programs and data
•Programs can be designed to deliberately cause
damage to computer systems. Viruses and logic bombs
are examples of such programs

GCSE Information
Technology
 Hackers

•People who use their knowledge of computers to

break into computer systems
•Some just leave harmless messages to show
they’ve been there
•Some deliberately try to delete files
•The Computer Misuse Act which made hacking
illegal

GCSE Information
Technology
 Viruses

•A program that can make copies of itself in order

to ‘infect’ other computers.
•Viruses can spread from one computer to another
via infected disks, downloaded files and e-mail
•Virus scanning software can be used to protect
systems
•This software can be set up to scan files when
they are opened, downloaded from the Internet or
copied
•Software should be updated regularly

GCSE Information
Technology
 Logic bombs

•A set of instructions written in computer code

that can be hidden inside other software and set to
activate at a particular date and time.
•Once activated it takes control of a computer and
begins damaging files

GCSE Information
Technology
 Software piracy
•Illegal copies of software are made
•Copyright law makes this illegal

Security and integrity of data

•Possible dangers include:
•Natural hazards such as fires, floods or
lightning
•Human error causing loss or damage to data
•Theft of data electronically due to hacking
•Physical theft of disks or other computer
hardware
GCSE Information
•Integrity of data is to do with ‘correctness’
Technology
 Backup copies
•Kept so that data can be restored to its original
condition
•Backups should always be kept in a secure,
airtight and heatproof container at a remote
location
•Passwords and
Backup copies should levels
be made of
regularly
•access
Passwords used to restrict access
•Some packages allow individual files to be
password protected
•Some password systems are hierarchical (i.e.
different passwords give different levels of access)

GCSE Information
Technology
 Log files
•Used to help track down people who have stolen
or damaged computer data
•A log file records every attempt to log on to a
computer (successfully or not)

Physical security measures

•Restricting access to computers by locking
computer rooms and controlling access to them

Encryption
•Protects data files from being used if they are
stolen
•Data is coded in such a way that it can’t be read
unless special decoding or decryption software is
GCSE Information
Technology
22 The Data Protection Act

•This sets out rules for collecting, storing and

processing personal data
•Personal data relates to living, identifiable
individuals
•The Act first became law in 1984 and was
updated in 1988
•It describes:
•The rules that data controllers (people who store and
process personal data) must follow
•The rights of data subjects (the individuals that the data
is about)
GCSE Information
•The exemptions that exist to the Act Technology
 Rules that data controllers
must follow
•Eight principles of ‘good information handling’ –
data must be:
•processed fairly and lawfully
•processed for limited purposes
•adequate, relevant and not excessive
•accurate
•not kept longer than necessary
•processed in accordance with the data subject's rights
•kept secure

•not transferred to countries without adequate protection

GCSE Information
Technology
 Rights of data subjects
•Data subjects can normally see all of the data
held about them, with some exceptions, for
example if it would affect:-
•The way crime is detected or prevented
•Catching or prosecuting offenders
•Assessing or collecting taxes or duty
•The right to see certain health and social work details
may also be limited

•The data subject is required to write a letter

asking for a copy of the data held about them
•Data controllers should reply within 40 days,
provided proof of identity and the fee have been
provided GCSE Information
Technology
 Exemptions to the Act
•Exemptions are possible for:
•Maintenance of a public register
•Some not-for-profit organisations
•Processing personal data for personal, family or household
affairs (including recreational purposes)
•If you only process personal data for
•staff administration
•advertising, marketing and public relations
•accounts and records
•Individuals who are processing personal data for personal,
family or household affairs are exempt from notification and
most of the other provisions of the Data Protection Act 1998.

GCSE Information
Technology
The Data Protection
Commissioner
•An independent officer appointed by the queen
•Reports directly to Parliament
•Duties include:
•Maintaining a register of the names and addresses of all
data controllers
•Considering complaints from data subjects about data
controllers who have not followed the principles of
information handling and prosecuting or serving notices
on offenders.

GCSE Information
Technology
23 Computer Control

•This is the use of a computer to monitor and

control an external process.
•Input sensors are used by the computer to
monitor the various parts of a process that it is
controlling
•Before any process can be controlled by a
computer a control program must be written by a
human to tell the computer what to do

GCSE Information
Technology
 Analogue and digital signals
•A sensor can send two types of signal to a
computer – digital and analogue
•Digital signals can only have two values: on (or
true) and off (or false)
•Analogue signals can have any value
•To process analogue signals the computer needs
an analogue-to- digital converter
An analogue signal is A digital signal is sent
sent from the sensor from the analogue-to-
to an analogue-to- digital converter to a
digital converter computer
analogue-to-digital
Sensor converter Computer

GCSE Information
Technology
 Feedback
•Feedback control systems use the values of their output
signals to affect the value of their input signals
•This is useful when a certain set of conditions needs to be
constantly maintained
•Output signals make changes to the conditions outside
which will affect its input signals
START

check the value

of the input
signal

does the input change the value

signal match NO
of the output
the required signal
value?

YE
S
don’t do anything
this time

GCSE Information
Technology
 Sensors
•Many different types which can each measure some
physical quantity outside the computer e.g.
•Temperature
•Pressure
•Light
•Water and moisture levels
•Relative humidity
•Movement and wind speed
•Sensors detect analogue data which is converted into digital
data before it is sent to the computer

GCSE Information
Technology
 Actuators

•Many control systems need to control devices that can

move such as a motor in a greenhouse to open or close a
window.
•A device called an actuator is used to generate signals that
can make devices move

GCSE Information
Technology
 Logo
•This is a computer programming language used to teach
computer control
•Logo instructions are used to control the movement of a
small shape called a turtle around the screen
the lines drawn by turtle as it the turtle
moves

the instructions typed by the user to move the

turtle GCSE Information
Technology
 Microprocessors
•These are used to control automatic machines by following
pre-programmed sets of instructions called control programs
•Found around the home in for example:
•Video recorders
•Camcorders
•Hi-fi systems
•Microwave ovens
•Dishwashers
•Burglar alarms

GCSE Information
Technology
 Robots
•Used in hundreds of applications e.g.
•Assembling and spray-painting cars
•Maintaining overhead power cables
•Testing blood samples
•They all have the same basic hardware components:
•sensors which are used to monitor changes in physical
conditions such as speed and position
•a microprocessor to process the information received
from sensors
•actuators to produce movement or turn external devices
like switches on or off

GCSE Information
Technology
 Some advantages of robots
•They can work in environments that are hazardous to
humans, such as in outer space, underwater or in radioactive
environments
•They can perform repetitive and boring tasks without
needing to stop for a break
•The quality of their work is always the same because they
never get bored or have an off-day
•They can work to a greater level of accuracy than humans
•They can work 24 hours a day, seven days a week, resulting
in increased productivity

•The main disadvantage of robots is that they are

expensive to buy and install
GCSE Information
Technology
24 Health and Safety

•Working with computers for long periods of time

can cause:
•Stress
•Eyestrain
•Wrist injuries
•Neck and back problems

•Employers can be sued if they do not take steps

to protect employees

GCSE Information
Technology
 Stress
•Some of the ways that ICT systems can cause stress for
workers:
•Many people are afraid of computers and fear that they will
be left behind or made redundant if they are unable to learn
new ICT skills quickly enough and keep up with the younger
more computer-literate generation;
•· ICT systems make information instantly available
wherever you are. Mobile phones, pagers, portable
computers and the Internet make it possible to work
anywhere. This means that some people find it virtually
impossible to forget about work and relax.
•· The amount of information that ICT systems can
produce is often far too much for anyone to take in. This
results in ‘information overload’, which causes workers to
become stressed by the feeling that they can’t cope with the
information that they are receiving.
•· Workers can be monitored using ICT systems
GCSE— the
Information
Technology
 Repetitive strain injury
•Repeating the same physical movements over and over
again can cause a condition known as RSI
•Repeated presses on the keyboard and long periods of
holding and moving a mouse cause a build up of damage to
the hands arms and shoulders

Eyestrain
•Spending long periods of time in front of a computer screen
can cause eyestrain
•This can be avoided by:
•Ensuring there is enough light
•Reducing the amount of glare
•Ensuring workers wear correct prescription glasses if
needed
GCSE Information
Technology
 Extremely low frequency (ELF)
radiation

•Computer monitors are a common source of ELF

•Some evidence suggests that working for long periods in
front of a computer screen may increase the risk of
miscarriage during pregnancy

GCSE Information
Technology
 Computers, health and the
law
•Laws designed to protect people from workplace health
hazards are administered by the Health and Safety
Executive.
•Legislation requires employers to:
•Inspect workstations to make sure that they meet the required
standards for health and safety
•Train employees how to use workstations correctly
•Make sure that employees take regular breaks or changes in
activity
•Provide regular eye tests for workstation users and pay for
prescription glasses
•Legislation requires employees to:
•Use workstations and equipment correctly in accordance with
the training provided by their employer.
GCSE Information
•Inform their employer of any problems relating to Health
Technologyand
 Workplace design
•When purchasing new equipment or designing a working
ICT environment, employers must consider:
•Lighting – workplace should be well lit
•Furniture – Height-adjustable swivel chairs with backrests
and desks large enough to hold the computer and paperwork
•Noise – Work space should be quiet
•Hardware – Screens must not flicker and should swivel and
tilt. Keyboards must be separate, moveable and fitted with
wrist supports
•Software – This should make tasks easier
•The working environment – work space should be well
ventilated and maintained at a comfortable temperature

GCSE Information
Technology
25 Applications of ICT

•ICT in supermarkets
•Supermarkets use a computer system called ‘electronic
point of sale’ or EPOS to:
•monitor and control stock
•perform sales analysis
•collect data about customers using loyalty cards which
offer points whenever money is spent in the store. This
data is used to analyse the spending habits of customers
and send them offers for the type of products that they
buy regularly.

GCSE Information
Technology
 ICT in supermarkets
•Supermarket checkouts are called EPOS terminals

display
printer
magnetic stripe reader
scales
product number to cash drawer and keyboard
store computer
laser scanner

product details to
EPOS terminal
scanning beam
EPOS processor

GCSE Information
Technology
 ICT in supermarkets
•UK supermarkets use the European Article Number or EAN
barcode system

The first 2 digits

identify the country
where the product was
made. The last digit is
50 01935 01432 3 the check digit.

The next 5 digits The next 5 digits are

identify the the product code.
manufacturer of
the product.

GCSE Information
Technology
 ICT in supermarkets
•When a product is sold the following sequence of
events take place:
•a barcode scanner is used to read the EAN number from the
product
•the EAN number is sent to the branch computer by the EPOS
terminal
•the branch computer uses the EAN number to search the stock
file for the product’s price and description which it sends back
to the EPOS terminal
•the branch computer updates the stock level for the product to
show that one has been sold
•the product’s price and description are displayed at the EPOS
terminal and printed on a receipt
•the price of the product is added to the total of the products
processed so far
GCSE Information
Technology
 ICT in supermarkets
•Advantages of EPOS systems in supermarkets
include:
•Shelves are always well stocked, fresh food is readily available
and products very rarely run out
•Customers can be dealt with much more quickly at the
checkout;
•Customers receive a fully-itemised receipt
•Goods can be paid for using electronic funds transfer (EFT)
•Accurate and up-to-date sales analysis information is always
available for managers
•Customer buying patterns can be analysed and used to target
customers with offers for goods and services that they might be
interested in

GCSE Information
Technology
 ICT and banks
•Automated Teller Machines (ATMs)
•Banks use mainframe computers to maintain
their customer accounts by dealing with
transactions generated as a result of withdrawals
and deposits
•It also operates a network of automated teller
machines or ATMs
•Typically an ATM can be used to:
•withdraw cash
•check an account balance
•order a statement or print a ‘mini statement’
•order a cheque book
GCSE Information
Technology
 ICT and banks
•The advantages of ATMs:

•Banks can keep their operating costs down

because fewer employees are needed to work
behind the counter inside branches
•Customers have 24-hour access to their accounts
seven days a week
•There’s no need to carry large amounts of cash
around as the large number of ATMs means that it
is readily available

GCSE Information
Technology
 ICT and banks

•Clearing cheques
•Once a cheque has been written and paid into
the bank a process called clearing begins. This
describes the steps that take place in order for
the correct amount of money to be transferred
from one account to another.
•Cheques are processed using MICR

GCSE Information
Technology
 ICT and banks

•Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT)

•SWITCH and DELTA are the two main types of
debit card in the UK
•They can be used to pay for goods and
services instead of cash or cheques
•This type of payment system is called EFT
•Main advantages of EFT are that bank
accounts are updated straight away and there
is no need to use cash or wait for cheques to
clear.

GCSE Information
Technology
 ICT and banks
•Smart cards
•They look exactly like a credit or debit card
except that it has a microchip built into it
•Can be used to store data reliably and securely
•Money is stored on the card in an electronic
purse
•The main advantages :
•They can be used just like cash without the need to
wait for authorisation like EFT systems
•Smart card technology is more reliable than
magnetic stripes which are easily damaged
•Smart cards offer better security than magnetic
stripe cards because they are much more GCSE
difficult to
Information
forge and generate a unique digital code each time
Technology
 ICT and medicine
•Body scanners
•A body scanner sends electromagnetic rays
through a patient’s body and sensors detect
how much different parts of the body absorb
the rays. A computer uses this data to build up
an image of the inside of a patient’s body
•Body scanners allow doctors to find and treat
conditions such as tumours in their early stages
when the chances of treating them successfully
are much greater.

GCSE Information
Technology
 ICT and medicine
•Patient monitoring
Computers are used in hospitals to monitor
critically ill patients in intensive care units. The
patient has sensors attached to him which
detect changes in heart rate, pulse rate, blood
pressure, breathing and brain activity. If any of
these fall below a preset level the computer
sounds an alarm and alerts the medical staff.
The data is also logged and used to analyse the
changes in a patient’s condition over a period of
time.

GCSE Information
Technology
 ICT and medicine
•Organ transplants
Computerised databases are used to help
match patients who are waiting for organ
transplants such as a new kidney, liver or heart,
with suitable organs from donors
•Patient records
Computerised databases are used by every
hospital in the country to store information
about patients. Uses of these databases
include:
•organising the transfer of patients between wards
•recording the history of a patient’s appointments with a
consultant
•booking outpatient appointments
GCSE Information
• Technology