Scientific study of the interactions between

organisms and their environments

Interaction between organism and

environment determine the distribution of
organism and abundance of organism
Distribution of species?
Abundance of species?

Interaction occur at a hierarchy of scales,

from organismal to global.
4 comprehensive levels of study, from the
ecology of individual organisms to the
dynamics of ecosystems.
- organismal ecology
- population
- community
- ecosystem

Habitat is defined as a place where an

organism lives.
Organism ecology is concerned with the
morphological, physical and behavioral
ways in which individual organisms meet
the challenges posed by their biotic and
abiotic environments

Population is defined as groups of

individuals or of the same species that
tend to mate with each other and living in a
particular geographic area.
- (second level of study in ecology)
- analyzes factor that affects population size
and how and why it changes through time.

Community is defined as a group of

population of different species in an area.
- how interaction between species affect
community structure and organization

Ecosystem is defined as the community of

organisms in an area and the physical factor
with which those organisms interact.
- emphasizes energy flow and chemical
cycling between organisms and the
environment.

Landscape ecology mosaic of connected

ecosystems.
ecosystem
community
population
Organism/individual

The interactions between organisms and

their environments determine both the
distribution and abundance of organisms.
The environment of any organism include
abiotic components and biotic
components

Climate
Sunlight too little sunlight/to much
sunlight
Water/precipitation (rain,snow etc)
Temperature
Humidity
Wind and air currents
Soil
pH basic/acidic
Mineral + trace elements
Water retention + absorption

Geography
Salinity affect osmosis
Water current

Topography

competition for food or territory

(intraspecific)
interaction between predator and prey,
interaction between host and parasite,
mutualistic relationship competitive
exclusion and resource partitioning
(interspecific)

Biomes are defined as "the world's major

communities, classified according to the
predominant vegetation type in
teresstrial biomes or the physical
environment in aquatic biomes.
Biomes have changed and moved many
times during the history of life on Earth.
More recently, human activities have
drastically altered these communities

Aquatic biomes marine and freshwater

(salinity)
Terrestrial biomes (forest, tundra, savanna,
desert etc)

biosphere is the biological component of

earth systems.
defined as zone of air, land and water at the
surface of the earth in which living
organisms are found. (the global ecosystem)
The earth can be divided into atmosphere,
lithosphere and hydrosphere.

Ecological interactions between populations

of different species

The kinds of interaction that occur between

species in community

Classified by whether help, harm or no

effect

Ecological niche-biological role played by a

species in its community, or the sum of a
species use of the biotic and abiotic
resource in its environment.
Limiting resources limit the ecological niche
of a species.

Fundamental niche - the total range of

environmental conditions that are
suitable for a species existence without
the effects of interspecific competition and
predation from other species.

Realized niche -part of the

fundamental niche that a species
actually occupies.
Affected by competition.

 Involve

the interaction where two or

more organisms in the same space
require the same resource
Food, water, nesting space, ground
space
Interspecific or intraspecific biotic
levels.
Result of exploitation or interference.

Interspecific competition interaction

between different species that compete for
a limit resources.
Intraspecific competition - Individuals
compete with others of their own kind (that
is, members of their own species)
When populations grow, and individuals are
therefore more closely packed, and/or
resources are scarcer.

 Resource

competition - Occurs
when a number of organisms utilize
common resources that are in short
supply
An intraspecific/interspecific
all the individuals share the limited
resources, affected equally. None of
them get sufficient amount of
resources
(no winners/losers) (0/0)

Interference competition - Occurs when

the organisms seeking a resource harm
one another in the process.
Inter/intraspecific
Intraspecific competition with dominant
individuals get sufficient supply of the
limited resource.
Also known as contest competition
(fighting) (+/-)

Competitive Exclusion - a situation where

no two competitively interacting species
can occupy exactly the same fundamental
niche because of resource limitations.
Overlapping niche
The outcome - local extinction the
species that is a poorer competitor.

G. F. Gause, demonstrated the effect of

competition on niches on two species of
single-celled animals, Paramecium aurelia
and Paramecium caudatum.

The three graphs showing competition

between two species of Paramecium

 Resource

partitioning - the
differentiation of niches that
enables similar species to coexist
in a community.
the niche is partitioned into separate,
minimal overlapping differences in
resource use.

Species with reduced niche overlap have

reduced competition because they have
different requirements for similar
resources.
Resource partitioning very often results in
species that are specialists.

Result in, a species realized niche is

often different from its fundamental
niche.

7 species of Anolis lizards lived in close proximity, and all feed on

insects and small athropods. However, competiton for food is reduced
because each lizard species has a different preferred perch, thus
occupying a distinct niche.

 Predation

interaction between
species in which one species kills/eat
another species.
predator feeds on the prey.
Attack strategy

 Strategies

of Predators:
Pursuit predators - predators
which chase their prey
Ambush - camouflaged to avoid
notice by their prey

Predators have acute sense they able to

locate and identify their potential preys
Having adaptation claws, teeth, fangs,
stingers or poisons (help in catching the
prey)
Fast and agile (predators that pursuit their
prey)
Often disguised in environment (ambush
their preys)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=

RJW7oZ2b4XA

Prey adaptation to avoid being eaten

Common behavioral defenses hiding,
fleeing, forming herds/schools
Active self-defense is less common
Variety of morphological and physiological
defensive adaptation

Secondary compounds (plants)

Nutritional deficiencies (plants)
Mechanical defenses (plants)
Production of poisons (animals)
(chemical defenses)
Mechanical defenses (animals)
Running away and hiding (animals)

Fighting back (mostly animals)

Coloration
- Cryptic coloration (mostly animals)
- aposematic coloration
Mimicking
- Batesian mimicry (animals)
- Mllerian mimicry (animals)

Aposematic colors: Warn the predator that

they (the prey) are distasteful
- exhibit bright colors
Cryptic colors: Hide the prey by blending it
with its background (camouflage)
Mimetic colors: one species to resemble
another species.
Batesian mimicry a platable/harmless
species resemble/mimic unpalatable
species
Mullerian mimicry - two or more species
resemble each other

One such study involved deadly coral snakes and their

harmless look-alikes, scarlet king snakes.

Batesian mimickry

Mullerian mimickry

As a caterpillar the Monarch Butterfly

eats Milkweeds with produce a toxin. But
the Monarch has developed a way to
counter these toxins and stores them up
in its body. As an adult Moarcks tast bad
and birds learn not to eat butterflies that
have black and orange wings

The Viceroy Butterfly tastes great (to birds)

but the birds who have learned that
butterflies with black and orange wings
(Monarchs) taste bad won't eat Viceroys.
The Viceroy is the mimic, and the Monarch
is the Model.

Symbiosis (sym-= together, -bio- = life, -sis

= process)
Mutualism
Mutualism exists when two species interact
to the benefit of both species.
Commensalism
Commensalism is a symbiosis in which one
partner benefits but the other gains nothing
from the association.
Parasitism
In this type of symbiosis, one partner or the
parasite benefits at the expense of the
other partner or the host.

A process
The exploitation of an environment by one
population, followed by the exploitation by
a second and third population
Process where disturbed area being
colonized by a variety of species, which
gradually replaced by other species, which
in turn replaced by still other species.
Succession can be divided into primary
succession and secondary succession

Succession starts with the initial rapid

colonizer species which are the pioneer
community.
Succession stops when species composition
changes no longer occur with time, and this
community is said to be a climax
community.

Primary succession of bare rock

Secondary succession
Secondary succession is succession that
follows primary succession
secondary succession occurs rapidly
Cleared by some disturbance that leaves
the soil intact
Human activity such as clearing a climax
forest community to set up a farm field
consisting of a cultivated pioneering
species.

Herbaceous species that grow first

Then, woody shrubs
Forest eventually replace

Linked by one of three key process

The early arrival (organisms/species which
occurred first) facilitate the appearance of
the later species making more favorable
Early species may inhibit establishment of
later species so the colonization by later
species occur in spite of the activities of
early species.
Early species independent of the later
species which tolerate conditions created
early in succession - neither helped nor
hindered early species.

Individual communities and their abiotic

environments are called ecosystems
All of Earths ecosystems together are called the
biosphere
Studies of ecosystems have examined the effects of
human pollutants on the air, land and water
Have revealed the effects of deforestation
Decreased soil fertility, higher water temperature,
greater sediment in the water
Ecosystem management is a conservation approach
that considers the entire ecosystem and the
interactions, rather than working with only one
species

The flow of energy that occur along a

food chain.

Energy enters the food chain at the level of the

producers (usually plants) in the form of solar energy.
The plants convert solar energy into chemical energy in the
process of photosynthesis.

Chemical energy is passed from one trophic level to the

next through feeding by consumers.

Food webs, food chains and food

pyramids are three ways of representing
energy flow.

the transfer of energy from primary

producers through a sequence of
organisms in which each eats the one below
it in the chain and is eaten by the one
above.
The position an organism occupies in a food
chain known as its trophic level.
Example
green plants - primary producer
- herbivores primary consumers
- carnivores secondary consumers

Examples of
terrestrial and marine
food chain chains

A system of food chains that are linked

with one another.
Most food chains are interconnected
formed food webs
In food web, an organism may feed at more
than one trophic level.
Example
- barnacle feed on phytoplankton, in which case barnacle is a
primary consumer.
- however, barnacle may also feed on zooplankton, which
are
themselves(zooplankton) are primary consumer, and the
barnacle is the secondary consumer

Food webs -more realistic; allow individual

species to consume at more than one
trophic level

Producer an organism considered as a

source of energy for those above it in a food
chain
The sun is the ultimate source of energy
During photosynthesis, green plants and
certain bacteria (producers) trap sunlight
energy and use it to assemble carbon dioxide
and water into carbohydrates.
Producers are autotrophic and usually
photosynthetic organisms
Primary producer

Consumers - heterotrophic organisms that feed

on those below in food chains
Heterotrophic organisms that eat food produced
by another organism
Obtain energy either directly or indirectly from
producers
Primary consumers plant eaters/herbivores
Secondary consumers consume primary
consumers/carnivores that feed upon herbivores

Tertiary (third-level) or quaternary (fourthlevel) consumers consume secondary or

tertiary consumers respectively
The consumer at the end of food chain is known
as the top carnivore.

Decomposers or detritivores (heterotrophic

organisms)
Decomposer an organism that obtain energy
from chemical breakdown of dead
organism/animal or plant wastes.
Many decomposer are bacteria and fungi
(secrete enzymes on dead matter to absorb the
breakdown product (saprotroph))

Detritivores an animal that feds on

detritus (particles of organic material
derived from dead and decomposing
organisms, resulting from the activities
of decomposer)
e.g of detrtivores - Earthworms,
blowflies, maggots and woodlice.

Able to recycle nutrients from nonliving

or decaying organic material

Trophic (trophe)
Consumer Trophic Level Food Source

Herbivores
primary
plants
Carnivores
animals

Omnivores
animals
Detritivores

secondary

higher

all levels

--------------

plants &

detritus

Is a graphical representations of the trophic

structure of ecosystems. (PYRAMID)

organized with the productivity of plants on the

bottom, that of herbivores above the plants,
and carnivores above the herbivores.

If the ecosystem sustains top carnivores, they

are represented at the apex of the ecological
pyramid of productivity.

An energy pyramid indicates the energy

content of each biomass level

Usually in terms of kcal per square meter per

year usually determined by burning tissue in
a calorimeter and measuring the energy change

Pyramid of energy follow second law of

thermodynamics. The universal principle states
that whenever energy is transformed from one
state to another, the entropy of the universe
must increase.

Entropy - refers to the randomness of

distributions of matter and energy

In other understanding whenever energy

transformed from one state to another, the
energy at the next state is decrease.

whenever the fixed energy of biomass is passed along a food

chain, substantial energy losses occur during each transfer.

In the context of transfers of fixed biological

energy along the trophic chains of ecosystems,
-increases in entropy are represented by losses of
energy as heat.
-because energy is converted from a highly
ordered state in biomass, to a much less-ordered
state n biomass condition as heat.

The end result is that

- transfers of energy between organisms along
food chains are inefficient, and
-this causes the structure of productivity in
ecological food webs to always be pyramid
shaped.

Biomass organic materials measured in grams of dry

mass per square meter (g m-2)

A graphic representation of the amount of organic

material measured in grams of dry mass per square
meter (g m-2), found in particular habitat at ascending
trophic levels of food chain.

Instead of energy, the approximate masses of the

animals and plants involved are "stacked up" in
pyramidal fashion,
with the primary producers (plants) at the bottom, and
the last (generally largest) carnivore in the "food
chain" at the top.

Number pyramids have limited value; they do not

indicate the total biomass per level, which is the
most important characteristic

A biomass pyramid shows an estimate of

the total mass of living material at each
level
May be dry mass, living mass or total volume

In this example, the biomass of the shark are

less than the below level. The primary producers
have the largest biomass.
Biomass organic materials measured in grams
of dry mass per square meter (g m-2)

the graphic representation of number of

individuals per unit area of various trophic levels
stepwise with producers forming the base and top
carnivores the tip".
The shape of the pyramid of numbers vary from
ecosystem to ecosystem
Example
In aquatic ecosystems and herbaceous
communities, autotrophs are present in large
numbers per unit area.
They support a lesser number of herbivores,
which in turn support fewer carnivores.

Pyramid of Numbers in a Grassland Ecosystem

Pyramid of Numbers in a Aquatic Ecosystem

So, the producers are smallest sized but

maximum in number while,
top carnivores are larger in size but lesser in
number, so these cannot be used as prey by
another. Hence the pyramid of numbers is
upright.

Is about ecosystem metabolism and energy flow

Primary producers use light energy to synthesize
chemical energy (energy-rich organic molecules)
which can be broken down to generate ATP
The extent of photosynthetic production sets the
spending limit for the energy budget of the entire
ecosystem.
The amount of light energy converted to chemical
energy (organic compound) by an ecosystems
autotrophs during a given time period is called
primary production.

The gross primary productivity (GPP) of an

ecosystem expresses the total rate of
photosynthetic capture of energy
theamountofenergythatisconvertedtochemical
energybyphotosynthesisperunittime.

Net primary productivity (NPP) is the energy

remaining after subtracting the producers own
cellular respiration
reflects the rate of incorporation of organic
matter into plant (or other producer such as
algal) tissue with growth
equaltoGPPminustheenergyusedbytheprimary
producersforrespiration

Both GPP and NPP can be expressed in terms of

kilocalories fixed per area per time, or in terms of
grams carbon fixed

Rates of productivity are influenced by

environmental factors
Tropical rain forests are the most
productive terrestrial ecosystems
Wetlands, coral reefs and estuaries are the
most productive aquatic ecosystems

The most productive terrestrial areas are tropical rain forests; least
productive are deserts
Most productive marine environments are red/least are blue

A recurring pattern worldwide is that ecosystems

tend to become more diverse as productivity
increases

However, as productivity continues to increase, but

after a certain point, diversity will start to decline

Coastal marine environments display less diversity

than abyssal environments; mid-ocean depths are
most diverse.
This probably results from the patchy distribution of
resources in more energy poor environment.

Unfortunately, humans constantly enrich coastal

environments (and other environments too) as a
result of the application of fertilizers, and
enrichment by animal wastes

Humans - tend to concentrate so greatly,

consume an increasingly greater percentage of
global NPP and so compete strongly with other
species for energy flow in the environment. This
is already having disastrous consequences for
natural food webs.

Biogeochemical cycles are cycles of

matter between the abiotic
(nonbiologically derived) and the biotic
(biologically derived) components of the
environment
The carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and water cycles are
central to life on Earth
Carbon, nitrogen, and water cycles have atmospheric
components, and cycle on a global scale
Phosphorus has no atmospheric component, and cycles
on a local scale

Carbon dioxide is the pivotal molecule of the

carbon cycle
Carbon is present as carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere at ~0.03%, as carbon dioxide,
carbonate and bicarbonate in aquatic habitats,
and in rocks such as limestone
Carbon is fixed into organic molecules such as
glucose by photosynthesis
Organic molecules are used in cellular
respiration, and/or may be passed to
consumers
Organic carbon may be stored in tree wood, or
stored even longer in fossil fuels

Fossil fuel or wood combustion releases

carbon to the atmosphere
The organic carbon of marine organisms
may end up in limestone
Erosion returns limestone carbon to the
water

Human activities have disturbed the global

carbon budget
Since the beginning of the Industrial
Revolution, humans have contributed an
increasing amount of carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere by burning fossil fuels

The enhanced carbon dioxide may be leading to

catastrophic changes in climate, with global
warming resulting in melting of the ice caps,
resulting in global change in sea level,
changes in precipitation, loss of arable land
(and coastal cities), and mass extinction with
resultant loss of biodiversity

Bacteria are essential to the nitrogen cycle

Nitrogen gas in the atmosphere is very
abundant, but is such a stable molecule
that bacteria are needed to break it apart
and this process consumes much energy
Five steps are involved in the nitrogen
cycle

Nitrogen fixation
Nitrification
Assimilation
Ammonification
Denitrification

Nitrogen fixation - is the conversion of

gaseous nitrogen (N2 ) to ammonia (NH3 )
Most nitrogen fixation is accomplished by
nitrogen-fixing bacteria
The enzyme nitrogenase performs nitrogen
fixation
Functions only in the absence of oxygen
Present in the heterocysts of cyanobacteria such as
Anabaena, some soil bacteria, & Rhizobium, which
lives in root nodules of legumes such as beans and
peas and some woody plants

 Nitrification

to Nitrate

- Conversion of Ammonia

Nitrifying bacteria convert the nitrogen

compounds to produce metabolic energy
Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus are soil
bacteria which convert ammonia to nitrite
Nitrobacter, another soil bacterium, converts
nitrite to nitrate

 Assimilation

is the uptake of nitrate or

ammonia by plantroots
Animals assimilate nitrogen by consuming
plants or other animals
Ammonification is the conversion of organic
nitrogen compounds into ammonia

Nitrogen-containing wastes are

decomposed by ammonifying
bacteria are recyclers of organic
nitrogen
Denitrification is the conversion of
nitrate to gaseous nitrogen, which
represents a net loss of available
nitrogen in the system

Denitrifying bacteria are anaerobes

Human interaction with the nitrogen cycle

can cause water pollution
Usage of nitrogenous fertilizers enriches
bodies of water when agricultural areas are
eroded
Combustion of fossil fuels causes
nitrogen to be rapidly converted from
organic materials to the atmosphere
High temperatures produce nitrogen oxides,
which create severe pollution problems
Involved in photochemical pollution: smog

Form nitric and nitrous acid, they acidify

water in the ground and streams, lakes
Acidification has impact on soil chemistry
so that essential nutrients like Ca and K
wash out of the soil
N2O (nitrous oxide) also depletes the
atmospheric ozone layer

The phosphorus cycle lacks a gaseous

component
Phosphorus (P) is a critical component of
cellular metabolism and structure
Phosphorus cycles from the land to water,
into sediments and back to the land
Is released by erosion into water, where it is
taken up by the soil and picked up by plants
via their roots
Is also taken up by algae

Plants and algae eaten by fish, other

aquatic/marine animals; as they die the
phosphorus is recycled back to the water;
bird and other animals that each fish
move phosphorus to the land via their
feces and via their bodies
Phosphate is returned to the soil by
decomposers
Phosphate may be deposited in oceanic
sediments where it remainsunavailable for
millions of years

Phosphorus normally moves only in small

quantities into the terrestrial ecosystems from
aquatic/marine ecosystems; it is typically rare
and limits growth.

Humans affect the natural cycling of phosphorus

Fertilizers, runoff containing animal wastes, and sewage
introduce phosphorus into aquatic ecosystems
This requires rejuvenation of soil phosphorus, which
comes from deposits in limited locations within the US

Phosphorus loss from ecosystems is normally

slow
However, it is vastly accelerated by clear-cutting
and resultant erosion

Water moves among the ocean, land, and

atmosphere in the hydrological cycle
Water may evaporate from land and
enter the atmosphere, flow to the ocean,
or enter the groundwater
Water in the atmosphere is ultimately
precipitated on the land or ocean

Abiotic factors influence where and how

successfully an organism can survive
The sun warms the Earth

Solar energy powers biogeochemical cycles

All solar energy is ultimately radiated back into
space as heat energy

Temperature changes with latitude

The suns rays strike the equatorial regions
vertically which results in warmer temperatures

The tilting of the Earths axis causes the amount

of solar radiation to
vary during the year

In 1977, researchers from the Woods

Hole Oceanographic Institution, using
the deep submersible ALVIN, discovered
new living forms on the Galapagos Rift,
off the coast of Ecuador
There, heated water at very high
temperature moved through the
submerged rocks and released H2S
(hydrogen sulfide), which is normally
poisonous

Near the vents, ALVIN researchers

observed rich accumulations of organisms
Unusual organisms not seen elsewhere
These organisms extract energy from H2S and
form a small ecosystem on the ocean floor
No light at these depths and outside a limited
region, is very cold (~4O C), so these are
islands of life on the sea floor
Shows that alternative ecosystems can exist; it
is thought by some that these might be much
like early Earth ecosystems.

The atmosphere contains several gases

essential to organisms
The atmosphere protects the Earths
surface from radiation
The sun drives global atmospheric
circulation

Differential warming of the earth results in

atmospheric circulation
Heated air at the equator rises, flows away from the
equator, cools, and sinks

The atmosphere exhibits complex

horizontal movements
Horizontal movements are called winds
The Coriolis effect is the deflection of winds by
the Earths rotation
Winds are deflected to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere, and to the left in the Southern
Hemisphere

Air heated at the

equator rises, moves
northward
As it cools it drives
downward movement
at ~30O from the
equator; this
movement is coupled
to movement of air
from the north

Movement of extreme northerly and

southerly polar air is along the surface,
driven by its density (cold air is dense)
The lateral movement of the air is in part
driven by the Coriolis Effect

The Coriolis Effect is

demonstrated by a merry-goround

Although the ball actually

moves in a straight line, it
appears to curve to the right
of the recipient (left of the
thrower) because of the
rotation of the merry-goround (white dashed line)

The global ocean covers most of Earths

surface
Four interconnected oceans may be
described; the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian and
Arctic Oceans

The Pacific Ocean contains more than half of the

Earths water

Surface ocean currents are driven by

winds
Ocean currents are produced by prevailing
winds
Circular ocean currents are gyres occur
because of the Coriolis Effect and move in a
clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere,
and counterclockwise in the Southern
Hemisphere

 The continents affect oceanic circulation

The Southern Hemisphere has a circumpolar flow of
water
Current flows intensify along western ocean boundaries
in the Northern Hemisphere, along the eastern
boundaries in the Southern Hemisphere
The current along the eastern United States is
northward, the current along the western United States
is southward
The ocean interacts with the atmosphere

The El Nio-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a

periodic warming of the ocean in the tropical
East Pacific which alters climatic patterns in
many far distant areas

During El Nio,
the upwelling is
greatly reduced

Anchovy stocks
are much lower
due to lack of
food

Climate profoundly affects organisms

Weather is the atmospheric condition at a given
place and time

Climate is the average weather

Air and water movements and surface features

affect precipitation patterns
Precipitation occurs when air reaches its saturation
point
Precipitation is highest on the windward coast of
continents
Temperate continental interiors are drier

Some mountains cause rain shadows

As air rises over mountains, it cools and
precipitation occurs
The leeward side of mountains has
little precipitation

Microclimates are local variations in

climate
Microclimates may be created by differences in
terrain, or by the organisms themselves

On the leeward side of mountain chains, the air is much drier,

because precipitation on the windward slope removes water
Deserts are typically seen in this environment

Fires are a common disturbance in some

areas
Fires free nutrients tied up in dry organic
material
Fires remove plant cover and promote
germination of many seeds

Fires are a natural event in the African

savanna, the California chaparral, the
North American grasslands and the
Ponderosa pine forests

Aids in cleaning out underbrush; releases ash and

mineral nutrients back to the soil
Some plants are fire-adapted; for instance some
conifers require fire to open their tough cones so
that seeds can be released

Humans try to stop fires,

this can have destructive
consequences
The deadly Colorado
fires of 1994 are now
blamed on fire
suppression efforts over
decades, allowing the
accumulation of vast
quantities of fuel

Controlled burning (right) is used to burn plant

litter before it reaches dangerous levels
Can be controversial; a fire near Los Alamos in
2000 spread unexpectedly, did considerable
damage