Sociology as Social

Science
In this chapter you will examine the nature
and the focus of sociology. A brief overview of
sociology's early years and current theoretical
perspectives are also presented.

Why Sociology a Science?

Like all scientists, sociologists follow five basic principles
for
establishing and explaining facts:
Sociology relies on evidence. It demands proof.
Sociology minimizes error and bias by following many

techniques.
Sociology is a public venture. Open discussion and
examination of research gives sociology a selfcorrecting mechanism.
Sociology is concerned with generalizations.
Sociology seeks to relate facts to one another and to
underlying principles in order to produce theory;

What is Sociology?
Sociology
Systematic study of
social behavior in
human groups

Definition of Sociology
Sociology is the science that studies human

society and social behavior.

Sociology is concerned with the study of

human society. (Giddens)

Why Study Sociology?

Awareness of the cultural differences
Assessing the effects of the policies
Self-enlightenment/understanding yourself
Making everyday decisions
Career preparation

Promise of Sociology
Sociology can make people aware of the different ways in

which social arrangements shape their lives.

Sociology permits the user to examine the assumptions

underlying conventional wisdom

Sociology permits the identification of problems that the
public has not yet recognized
Sociologists can design and evaluate alternative solutions to
social problems
Sociology can help people better understand their own
experiences, problems, and prospects.

The Sociological Imagination

Awareness of relationship between an individual
and the wider society.(C. Wright Mills)

Public issues or history & private issue or biography

Troubles are private problems in an individuals life.
Issues affect large numbers of people
Issues shape the context within which troubles arise.
Social issues arise when large numbers of people

experience problems rooted in the social structure of

society.

Sociology and Common Sense

Common sense is the knowledge people gain about

the world through their everyday experience.

On occasion, sociological findings and common sense do

overlap, but often, sociology challenges popular wisdom.

Common sense holds that seeing is believing. Sociologists
found that the reverse is also true: what we believe often
determines what we see; our perceptions are filtered
through the lens of our previous experiences, attitudes, and
beliefs.
Problems with common sense
Limited experience
Biasness
Lack of evidence

Subjectivity and
objectivity
Subjective: An attitude toward a situation in

which cultural/personal variations are

permitted to affect observation & judgment.
Objective: An attitude toward a situation in
which cultural/group evaluations and personal
bias/interest are absent/controlled/reduced to
minimum.

Origins of Sociology
French Revolution
Industrial Revolution 17th and 18th centuries .

Among the classical founders of sociology, four

figures are particularly important;
Auguste Comte
Herbert Spencer
Karl Marx
Emile Durkheim
Max Weber

Development of Sociology:
Auguste Comte (French) 17981857
Coined term sociology in 1839 to apply to

science of human behavior

Father of Sociology. .
He believed that all societies must progress
through certain fixed historical stages of
development.
His approach to the study of social progress is
called positivism.

Theological: Belief in God

Metaphysical: from supernatural to natural
Positivism: Belief in science.

Auguste Comte (Laws of three stages)

The Development of
Sociology
Early Thinkers
Harriet Martineau 18021876
Translated works of Comte
Emphasized impact economy, law, trade, health, and
population could have on social problems
Believed that sociologists should act on their
conviction in a way that will benefit society

Herbert Spencer (English)

18201903

Father of Social Darwinism

Applied concept of evolution to explain how societies

evolve over time

Social Darwinisti.e. promoter of the Darwinian
concept of survival of the fittest to the social world
depicted society as a system, a whole made up of
interrelated parts.
Idea of "Social Darwinism," held that societies are like

living organisms that evolve over time, eventually

reaching a state of perfection

Spencer, the father of social Darwinism, argued that

societies evolve from lower to higher forms. The most

capable survives while the least fit dies out. (survival
of the fittest)

Karl Marx 18181883 (German)

Father

of Communism. "Das Capital, Communist

Manifesto."
Emphasized importance of economy and of conflict in
society
He saw factory as the center of conflict and between
exploiters(Bourgeoisie/Capitalist class) and exploited
( Proletariat/Working class)
Emphasized on group identification and association as
an indicator of status.
Marxs theory of class struggle shows a theory of social
change.

Surplus Value Theory

Major Contribution: Class Struggle, Surplus

Value and alienation theory

Surplus Value theory:
Actual Cost of Product = Cost of Raw
Materials+ labor wages
Price of the product = cost of raw
materials+ Wages+ Profit
Price of the product- actual cost of product
= Surplus Value
More exploitation, more surplus value,
more investment.

Emile Durkheim (France)

18581917

Pioneered work on suicide

Insisted behavior must be understood within larger

social context
Mentioned that industrialized societies may suffer from
anomie loss of direction
Major Contribution: Social Facts and Division of Labour
Social facts are the ways of acting , thinking or feeling
that are external to human being, state of the
economy, religion.
Social facts exercise a coercive power over individuals.
Division of Labor in Society (1893):
-Mechanical solidarity: Grounded on consensus and
similarity of belief
- and organic solidarity: economic interdependence

Emile Durkhiem: Mechanical and Organic Solidarity

Mechanical Solidarity

homogenous population
Little or no specialization
Shared Values and Beliefs
traditional values
As a result of the dominance of a few shared values, society

can mobilise people, collective consciousness

Little individual freedom
The status of the individual is determined by kinship
Organic Solidarity

Larger population spread out over a larger geographical area

Complex division of labour, high job specialization
Individuals are dependent on others to perform economic

functions that they themselves can not peform

Functional interdependence

Emile Durkheim
Mechanical Solidarity:
Example- Primitive society.
Organic solidarity:
Example: Urban and industrial society.

Max Weber (Germany)

18641920
Social Action is the force behind change
People are moving away from the traditional beliefs to the

rational, instrumental calculations.

Max Weber, argue that, in order to truly understand a social
phenomenon, the researcher should be value-free or
neutral. Personal values should have no influence on
research(value-free sociology)

Ideal Type:
construct for
evaluating specific
cases

Micro Vs Macro Sociology

Macrosociology:
concentrates on largescale phenomena or
entire civilization

Microsociology:
stresses study of small
groups, often through
experimental means

What is a Theoretical Perspective?

Perspectives might best be viewed as models.

Each perspective makes assumptions about

society.

The
Perspective
(Social
TheFunctionalist
origins of the functionalist
perspective
stability)
can be traced to the work of Herbert
Spencer and Emile Durkheim.
Functionalist perspective see society in
terms of functions, roles and activities. To
the functionalist society could be compared
to living organism.
Understanding society from a functionalist
perspective is to visualize society as a
system where all the parts act together
even though each part may be doing
different things.

Functionalist
Perspective
Robert Merton

Manifest Functions:
open, stated,
conscious functions of
institutions; these
involve intended,
recognized,
consequences of an
aspect of society

Latent Functions:
unconscious or
unintended functions
that may reflect hidden
purposes of an
institution

Major Theoretical
Perspectives

Functionalist Perspective
Dysfunction: element or process of society

that may actually disrupt a social system or

reduce its stability

Functionalist
In brief, The Functionalist Perspective
Perspective
views society as a system where the elements are
interlinked in a stable fashion.
identifies the structural characteristics and
functions and dysfunctions of institutions.
distinguishes between manifest functions and
latent functions.
assumes that most members of a society share a
consensus regarding their core beliefs and values.
The main weakness of Functionalism is its
tendency to downplay the importance of power
and social change.

Conflict Perspective (Social change)

Conflict perspective assumes social behavior is best
understood in terms of conflict or tension between
competing groups
Conflict not necessarily violent can take the form
of labor
negotiation, Party politics,
competition between religious groups for new
members or disputes over federal
budget

Marx is a conflict theorist.

The Marxist View: Conflict not merely a class

phenomenon, but part of everyday life in all
societies
Emphasis on social change and redistribution of
resources
makes conflict theorists more radical
and
activist than
functionalists.

In brief, The Conflict

Perspective
Conflict
Perspective

draws much of its inspiration from the work of

Karl Marx and argues that the structure of society

and the nature of social relationships are the
result of past and ongoing conflicts.
highlights that some groups always benefit more
from the social arrangements.
eventually narrates that the structure of society
reflects the efforts of those at the top maintaining
their privileges at the expense of those who lack
the power to oppose them.
The main weakness of conflict theory is its failure
to explain social cohesion.

The Interactionist Perspective

(Social interaction)
The

scope
of
investigation
for
these
sociologists is very small. They are interested
in the way individuals act toward, respond to,
and influence one another in society.
Society occurs as a result of interaction
between individuals and small groups of
individuals.

Major Theoretical
Perspectives
Feminist Perspective

Views inequity in gender as central to all

behavior and organization

Sometimes allied with conflict theory, the
feminist perspective also focuses on micro-level
relationships of everyday life, just as
interactionists do

Major Theoretical Perspectives

Sociologists use all perspectives
We gain broadest understanding of society by

drawing on all major perspectives, noting

where they overlap or where they diverge
Each perspective offers unique insights into
the same issue

Functionalist

Conflict

Interactionist

View of
Society

Stable, well-integrated

Characterized by tension and

struggle between groups

Active in influencing and affecting

everyday social interaction

Level of
Analysis
Emphasized

Macrosociological analysis Macrosociological analysis of

of large-scale patterns
large-scale patterns

Microsocial analysis as a way of

understanding the larger phenomena

View of the
Individual

People are socialized to

perform societal functions

People manipulate symbols and

create their social worlds through
interaction

People are shaped by power,

coercion and authority

View of the
Maintained through
Maintained through force and
Social Order cooperation and consensus coercion
View of
Predictable, reinforcing
Social Change
communication with others

Maintained by shared understanding of everyday behavior

Change takes place all the timeReflected in peoples position and

and may have positive
their
consequences