Analysis of Recursive Algorithms

What is a recurrence relation?

Forming Recurrence Relations

Solving Recurrence Relations

Analysis Of Recursive Factorial

Analysis Of Recursive Binary Search

Analysis Of Recursive Towers of Hanoi

Analysis Of Recursive Fibonacci

Simplified Master Theorem

What is a recurrence relation?

A recurrence relation, T(n), is a recursive function of an integer variable n.

Like all recursive functions, it has one or more recursive cases and one or
more base cases.

Example:

The portion of the definition that does not contain T is called the base case of
the recurrence relation; the portion that contains T is called the recurrent or
recursive case.

Recurrence relations are useful for expressing the running times (i.e., the
number of basic operations executed) of recursive algorithms

The specific values of the constants such as a, b, and c (in the above recurrence)
are important in determining the exact solution to the recurrence. Often however
we are only concerned with finding an asymptotic upper bound on the solution.
We call such a bound an asymptotic solution to the recurrence.

Forming Recurrence Relations

For a given recursive method, the base case and the recursive case of its recurrence relation
correspond directly to the base case and the recursive case of the method.
Example 1: Write the recurrence relation for the following method:
void f (int n)
{
if (n > 0) {
printf(%d, n);
f(n-1);
}
}

The base case is reached when n = = 0. The method performs one comparison. Thus, the number of
operations when n = = 0, T(0), is some constant a.
When n > 0, the method performs two basic operations and then calls itself, using ONE recursive
call, with a parameter n 1.
Therefore the recurrence relation is:
T(0) = a
for some constant a
T(n) = b + T(n 1)
for some constant b
In General, T(n) is usually a sum of various choices of T(m ), the cost of the recursive subproblems,
plus the cost of the work done outside the recursive calls:
T(n ) = aT(f(n)) + bT(g(n)) + . . . + c(n)
where a and b are the number of subproblems, f(n) and g(n) are subproblem sizes, and c(n) is the cost
of the work done outside the recursive calls [Note: c(n) may be a constant]

Forming Recurrence Relations (Contd)

Example 2: Write the recurrence relation for the following method:

int g(int n)
{
if (n == 1)
return 2;
else
return 3 * g(n / 2) + g( n / 2) + 5;
}

The base case is reached when n == 1. The method performs one comparison
and one return statement. Therefore, T(1), is some constant c.

When n > 1, the method performs TWO recursive calls, each with the
parameter n / 2, and some constant number of basic operations.

Hence, the recurrence relation is:

T(1) = c
T(n) = b + 2T(n / 2)

for some constant c

for some constant b

Forming Recurrence Relations (Contd)

Example 3: Write the recurrence relation for the following method:

long fibonacci (int n) { /* Recursively calculates Fibonacci number */
if( n == 1 || n == 2)
return 1;
else
return fibonacci(n 1) + fibonacci(n 2);
}

The base case is reached when n == 1 or n == 2. Each of T(1) and T(2) is

some constant c.

When n > 2, the method performs TWO recursive calls, one with the
parameter n - 1 , another with parameter n 2, and some constant number
of basic operations.

Hence, the recurrence relation is:

T(n) = c
T(n) = T(n 1) + T(n 2) + b

if n = 1 or n = 2
if n > 2
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Forming Recurrence Relations (Contd)

Example 4: Write the recurrence relation for the following method:

long power (long x, long n) {
if(n == 0)
return 1;
else if(n == 1)
return x;
else if ((n % 2) == 0)
return power (x, n/2) * power (x, n/2);
else
return x * power (x, n/2) * power (x, n/2);
}

The base case is reached when n == 0 or n == 1. T(0) and T(1) is some constant c.

At every step the problem size reduces to half the size. When the power is an odd
number, an additional multiplication is involved. To work out time complexity, let us
consider the worst case, that is we assume that at every step an additional
multiplication is needed. Thus total number of operations T(n) will reduce to number of
operations for n/2, that is T(n/2) with several additional basic operations (the odd power
case)

Hence, the recurrence relation is:

T(n) = c
T(n) = 2T(n /2) + b

if n = 0 or n = 1
if n 2

Solving Recurrence Relations

To solve a recurrence relation T(n) we need to derive a form
of T(n) that is not a recurrence relation. Such a form is called
a closed form of the recurrence relation.
There are five methods to solve recurrence relations that
represent the running time of recursive methods:
Iteration method (unrolling and summing)
Substitution method (Guess the solution and verify by induction)
Recursion tree method
Master theorem (Master method)
Using Generating functions or Characteristic equations
We will use the Iteration method and a simplified Master
theorem.
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Solving Recurrence Relations - Iteration method

Steps:
Expand the recurrence
Express the expansion as a summation by plugging the recurrence
back into itself until you see a pattern.
Evaluate the summation
In evaluating the summation one or more of the following summation
formulae may be used:
Arithmetic series:
Special Cases of Geometric Series:

Geometric Series:

Solving Recurrence Relations - Iteration method (Contd)

Harmonic Series:

Others:

Analysis of Recursive Factorial method

Example1: Form and solve the recurrence relation for the running time
of factorial method and hence determine its big-O complexity:
long factorial (int n) {
if (n == 0)
return 1;
else
return n * factorial (n 1);
}
T(0) = c
(1)
T(n) = b + T(n - 1)
(2)
= b + b + T(n - 2)
by subtituting T(n 1) in (2)
= b +b +b + T(n - 3)
by substituting T(n 2) in (2)

= kb + T(n - k)
The base case is reached when n k = 0 k = n, we then have:
T(n) = nb + T(n - n)
= bn + T(0)
= bn + c
Therefore the method factorial is O(n)
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Analysis Of Recursive Binary Search

int binarySearch (int target, int array[], int low, int high)
{
int middle;
if (low > high)
return -1;
else
{
middle = (low + high)/2;
if (array[middle] == target)
return middle;
else if(array[middle] < target)
return binarySearch(target, array, middle + 1, high);
else
return binarySearch(target, array, low, middle - 1);
}
}

The recurrence relation for the running time of the method is:
T(n) = a
if n = 1 (one element array)
T(n) = T(n / 2) + b if n > 1
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Analysis Of Recursive Binary Search (Contd)

Without loss of generality, assume n, the problem size, is a multiple of 2, i.e., n = 2k

Expanding:
T(1) = a

(1)

T(n) = T(n / 2) + b
(2)
= [T(n / 22) + b] + b = T (n / 22) + 2b
= [T(n / 23) + b] + 2b = T(n / 23) + 3b
= ..
= T( n / 2k) + kb

by substituting T(n/2) in (2)

by substituting T(n/22) in (2)

The base case is reached when n / 2k = 1 n = 2k k = log2 n, we then

have:
T(n) = T(1) + b log2 n
= a + b log2 n

Therefore, Recursive Binary Search is O(log n)

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Analysis Of Recursive Towers of Hanoi Algorithm

void hanoi(int n, char from, char to, char temp)
{
if (n == 1)
printf(%c --------> %c,from,to);
else
{
hanoi(n - 1, from, temp, to);
printf(%c --------> %c,from,to);
hanoi(n - 1, temp, to, from);
}
}

The recurrence relation for the running time of the

method hanoi is:
T(n) = a
if n = 1
T(n) = 2T(n - 1) + b
if n > 1
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Analysis Of Recursive Towers of Hanoi Algorithm (Contd)

Expanding:
T(1) = a
(1)
T(n) = 2T(n 1) + b
if n > 1
(2)
= 2[2T(n 2) + b] + b = 22 T(n 2) + 2b + b
by substituting T(n1) in (2)
= 22 [2T(n 3) + b] + 2b + b = 23 T(n 3) + 22b + 2b + b
by substituting T(n-2) in (2)
= 23 [2T(n 4) + b] + 22b + 2b + b = 24 T(n 4) + 23 b + 22b + 21b + 20b
by
substituting T(n 3) in (2)

=
= 2k T(n k) + b[2k- 1 + 2k 2 + . . . 21 + 20]

The base case is reached when n k = 1 k = n 1, we then have:

Therefore, The method hanoi is O(2n)

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Analysis Of Recursive Fibonacci

long fibonacci (int n) { /* Recursively calculates Fibonacci

number*/

if( n == 1 || n == 2)
return 1;
else
return fibonacci(n 1) + fibonacci(n 2);
}
T(n) = c
T(n) = T(n 1) + T(n 2) + b

if n = 1 or n = 2
if n > 2

(1)
(2)

We determine a lower bound on T(n):

Expanding: T(n) = T(n - 1) + T(n - 2) + b
T(n - 2) + T(n-2) + b
= 2T(n - 2) + b
= 2[T(n - 3) + T(n - 4) + b] + b
by substituting T(n - 2) in (2)
2[T(n - 4) + T(n - 4) + b] + b
= 22T(n - 4) + 2b + b
= 22[T(n - 5) + T(n - 6) + b] + 2b + b
by substituting T(n - 4) in (2)
23T(n 6) + (22 + 21 + 20)b
...
2kT(n 2k) + (2k-1 + 2k-2 + . . . + 21 + 20)b
= 2kT(n 2k) + (2k 1)b
The base case is reached when n 2k = 2 k = (n - 2) / 2
Hence T(n) 2 (n 2) / 2 T(2) + [2 (n - 2) / 2 1]b
= (b + c)2 (n 2) / 2 b
= [(b + c) / 2]*(2)n/2 b
Recursive Fibonacci is exponential

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Master Theorem (Master Method)

The master method provides an estimate of the growth rate of the solution for recurrences of the
form:

where a 1, b > 1 and the overhead function f(n) > 0

If T(n) is interpreted as the number of steps needed to execute an algorithm for an input of size n,
this recurrence corresponds to a divide and conquer algorithm, in which a problem of size n is
divided into a sub-problems of size n / b, where a, b are positive constants:

Divide-and-conquer algorithm:
divide the problem into a number of subproblems
conquer the subproblems (solve them)
combine the subproblem solutions to get the solution to the original problem
Example: Merge Sort
divide the n-element sequence to be sorted into two n/2- element sequences.
conquer the subproblems recursively using merge sort.
combine the resulting two sorted n/2-element sequences by merging

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Simplified Master Theorem

The Simplified Master Method for Solving Recurrences:

Consider recurrences of the form:

T(1) = 1
T(n) = aT(n/b) + knc + h
for constants a 1, b > 1, c 0, k 1, and h 0 then:

T(n) O(n log b a )

if a > bc

c
T(n) O(n log n)

if a = bc

T(n) O(n c )

if a < bc

Note: Since k and h do not affect the result, they are sometimes not included
in the above recurrence
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Simplified Master Theorem (Contd)

Example1: Find the big-Oh running time of the following recurrence. Use the Master
Theorem:

Solution: a = 3, b = 4, c = a > bc Case 1

Hence

T(n) is

O(n log 4 3 )

Example2: Find the big-Oh running time of the following recurrence. Use the Master
Theorem:
T(1) = 1
T(n) = 2T(n / 2) + n
Solution: a = 2, b = 2, c = 1 a = bc Case 2

Hence T(n) is O(n log n)

Example3: Find the big-Oh running time of the following recurrence. Use the Master
Theorem:
T(1) = 1
T(n) = 4T(n / 2) + kn3 + h
where k 1 and h 1
Solution: a = 4, b = 2, c = 3 a < bc Case 3

Hence T(n) is O(n3)

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