Calvin College
Engineering Department
Introduction to Electric Power and Energy Systems
Power Engineering = The Power to Transform and Restore
To a City
From a Garden
Paulo F. Ribeiro, MBA, Ph.D., PE
Interim 2008
1
A Reflection on Technology
Despite its limitations and dangers, technology can alleviate in part the bind in
which humankind naturally finds itself. Appropriate technology can increase
lifes possibilities, decrease physical burdens and difficulties at work, and free
people from routine activities while opening the door to all kinds of mental
creative labor. Natural disasters can be averted, illness overcome, and, in a
certain sense, with the aid of electronics and microprocessors, the deaf can hear,
the blind can see, and the lame walk again. Technology development can
provide a degree of social security, and increase available information so as to
extend and deepen communications.
Adapted from Perspectives on Technology and Culture, by Egbert Schuurman
Example 1
Example 2
Example 3
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
ENGR W8
MTWTHF
02:00PM
054
NH
08/IN
Syllabus - Schedule - 2:00PM 5:00PM - - - Room SB 128
Professor:
Paulo F. Ribeiro
[email protected] Skype: aslan52
SB134 x 6407
ENGR W84
A Intro. to
Power/Energ
y Systems
08/IN
NH
054
02:00PM 05:00PM
MTWTHF
Course Instructions
Text
Class Notes; Internet / Web Resources
References: The Electric Power Engineering Handbook. CRC / IEEE Press, 2000.
Power System Analysis, Hadi Saadat, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2002.
Power System Analysis, 2nd Edition, Arthur R. Bergen and Vijay Vittal, Prentice-Hall, 1999.
Power Systems Analysis John J. Grainger and William D. Stevenson McGraw-Hill, 1994.
Elements of Power Systems Analysis, 4th Edition, William D. Stevenson, McGraw-Hill, 1982.
Electrical Energy Systems Theory, Olle Elgerd, McGraw-Hill, 1971;
Power Systems Analysis, Charles Gross, John Wiley & Sons, 1979
Power System Analysis & Design, J.D. Glover and M. Sarma, 2nd Edition, PWS Publishers, 1994
Web Resources (?????????????????????????????????????????????)
Some Suggested Topics For Final Paper
Distributed Generation, Energy Efficiency, Renewable Energy Sources
Exploring Grid Operations With PowerWorld
Exploring Power Systems and Power Electronics Transients With PSCAD/EMTDC
Designing A Distribution System With EasyPower
Harmonic Propagation Analysis (Using PSpice and/or MathCAD)
Paper 8-10 Pages (IEEE Paper Format)
Power Quality Survey/Diagnostic at Calvin College (Using Fluke 43)
Presentation 20 minutes
Perspectives on Deregulation of the Power Utility Industry
Teams of two students
Environmental Impact of Power Systems
Using the Internet for Power Systems Monitoring
Grades
(based on homework assignments, class participation, final paper/presentation, class log/notes)
Pass
Pass Honor
Fail
(S)
(H) For Outstanding Work
(U)(*)
(*) incomplete/insufficient assignments and/or missed two class periods
Course Instructions
My objective is to provide you with a learning environment in
which you will learn the fundamentals of power systems.
My approach is to encourage the student to learn how to
learn. To take ownership of the learning process: Initiative,
involvement, interactive participation are the keys to an
effective learning experience.
Please keep me informed if you do not feel that I have been
successful in this goal. Do not wait until evaluation time to
express your frustrations. I want to listen to your concerns or
difficulties with the material, and am always available to help
you outside the classroom.
8
Objectives/Introductory Words:
To introduce a broad range of theory and methods related to AC power system
analysis and design.
To develop familiarity with power system engineering components, equipment
and analytical tools
To understand and study of the largest machine ever built-the integrated power
grid.
To understand the use of transmission grids as a means of transport/delivery of
energy.
To use tools for the analysis of power systems (PowerWorld, EasyPower,
PSCAD/EMTP).
To investigate flow of power on a power grid.
To understand voltage regulation, real and reactive power, three phase power,
power quality, efficiency, practical stability limits, etc., etc.
To become familiar with management and environmental issues associated with
transmission grids / power systems.
9
Introduction to Power Systems: Syllabus
Concepts and Applications:
Introduction (Structure of Power Systems)
Basic Principles (AC Power)
Generation
Transmission Lines
Transformers
Power Flow
Stability
Transient and Harmonic Studies
Computer Programs
MathCAD, PSpice, MATLAB / Simulink (PowerSym),
PowerWord, EasyPower, EMTDC/PSCAD
Advanced Topics:
Distributed Generation, Renewable Power, Efficiency
10
Projects
1 Small Hydro Power Plant City of Plainwell, Michigan
Feasibility Study for Recovery of Plant
2 Belknap Lookout Community Feasibility Study of
Developing Wind Power Generation Project
3 Consumers Energy Control Center in Ada Work on
possible projects at the Control Center.
11
Projects
Erik Wilson, Manager
City of Plainwell
12
Projects
Steve Faber
Newberry Place
13
Projects
Mark Luehmann, Consumers Energy
14
An Overview of Power and Energy Systems
Power System Analysis, Computing and Economics
Computing applications
Distribution system analysis
Economics, market organization, cost structures, pricing, and risk management
Intelligent system applications
Reliability, uncertainty, and probability and stochastic system applications
Power System Dynamic Performance
Power system dynamic modeling: components and systems
Power system stability: phenomena, analysis, and techniques
Power system stability controls: design and applications
Power system dynamic measurements
Power system interaction with turbine generators
Dynamic security assessment: techniques and applications, risk-based methods
Power System Operations
Power system dynamic modeling: components and systems
Power system stability: phenomena, analysis, and techniques
Energy control centers
Distribution operation
System control
Operating economics and pricing
15
An Overview of Power and Energy Systems
Power System Planning & Implementation
Generation system resource planning
Transmission system planning
Distribution system planning
Integrated resource planning and distributed resource planning
Load forecasting
Customer products and services planning and implementation
Industry restructuring planning and policy issues
Insulated Conductors
Construction and design of cables (materials and manufacturing)
Construction, design and testing of cable accessories (cable terminations and joints)
Construction, operation, and testing of cable system
Assembly, operation, and testing of station, control (including fiberoptic), and utilization cables (no
transmission and distribution cables)
Power Engineering Education
New instruction methods (software/ internet / laboratory / combined with research)
Virtual classrooms/laboratory
Distance education
Life-long learning
16
An Overview of Power and Energy Systems
Electric Machinery
DC Machines
Permanent magnet machinery systems
Switched and variable reluctance machines
Integral horsepower induction machinery
Wound rotor induction machinery
Single phase induction motors
Electronic drives for electric machinery
Induction generators for grid and isolated applications
Synchronous generators
Motor/generator sets for pumped storage
Synchronous motors materials to electric machinery
Electrical machinery theory
Numerical analysis of electric machinery
Power processing equipment
Insulation for electric machinery
Application of magnetic materials to electric machinery
Application of superconducting
Power System Communications
Communication systems
Communication media
Communication protocols
Communication standardization
Home automation and communication
17
An Overview of Power and Energy Systems
Power System Instrumentation and Measurements
Digital technology for measurements
Electricity metering
High voltage testing
Measurement techniques for impedance elements
Power System Relaying
Digital protection systems
Adaptive protections
Power system protection
Protection of electrical equipment
Relaying communications
Relaying for consumer interface
Substations
Substation automation
Intelligent electronic devices (IEDs)
Programmable logic controllers (PLCs)
Substation design
High voltage power electronics stations
Gas insulated substations (GIS)
18
An Overview of Power and Energy Systems
Surge Proctective Devices
Design/testing of high voltage surge protective devices (>1000V)
Application of high voltage surge protective devices (>1000V)
Design/testing of low voltage surge protective devices (<1000V)
Application of low voltage surge protective devices (<1000V)
Nuclear Power Engineering
Nuclear power plant controls
Modeling, simulations and control
monitoring and instrumentation
Transformer
Power and instrument transformers
Insulating fluids
Dielectric testing
Audible noise and vibration
Transformer modeling techniques
19
An Overview of Power and Energy Systems
Transmission and Distribution
AC transmission and distribution facilities
Lightning phenomena and insulator performance
Overhead line conductors: thermal and mechanical aspects
Corona, electric, and magnetic fields
Towers, poles, and hardware
Capacitors, shunt and series capacitor banks, and harmonic filter banks
HVDC transmission and distribution, FACTS and power electronic applications to ac transmission
Harmonics and power quality
Transients, switching surges, and electromagnetic noise
Maintenance and operation of overhead lines
Work procedures, safety, tools, and equipment
Superconductivity analysis and devices
Distributed resources
Energy Development and Power Generation
Excitation systems
Power system stabilizers
Advanced energy technologies, Renewable energy technologies
Station design, operations, and control
Modeling, simulation and control of power plants
Monitoring and instrumentation of power plants
Control of distributed generation
Hydroelectric power plants, Power plant scheduling, Engineering economic issues
International practices in energy development
20
An Overview of Power and Energy Systems
Make sure you have your students run LOTS of load flows...
PowerWorld has an excellent demo package for schools.
You can be sure to tell them that in the "real world" though,
we are running 30,000+ bus load flows!
However, they will NOT have to know anything about
wavelets! :-)
We have a lot of positions open and will have more in the
near future.
Regards,
W.G, Ph.D., P.E.
Supervisor, Operations Engineering
Southwest Power Pool
21
Objectives/Introductory Words:
The Big Picture
22
Objectives/Introductory Words: Itaipu - A Great Story
The control center of the 18
generators - Left half of it (in
Brazil) controls the 60 Hz units,
right half (in Paraguay) controls
the 50 Hz units
A 18 kV to 525 kV transformer for 825 MVA
Inside the ITAIPU Powerhouse
To increase the voltage of the generators, transformers
Dimensions: length: 986 m, maximum height: 112 m and width: 99m. The
with a capacity of 825 MVA and 768 MV, for 50 and 60
red line on the floor indicates the border of Brazil and Paraguay
Hz respectively, were specified
Electricity (AC) leaving ITAPU to Sao Paulo - 6,300 MW of electrical power generated
by the 60 Hz units is transported by an 891 km AC transmission system, formed by
three lines of 750 kV.
Source: http://www.solar.coppe.ufrj.br/itaipu_conv.html
23
Objectives/Introductory Words:
Power System Components
Electrical Components
Light bulb
Socket
Wire to switch
Switch
Wire to circuit box
Circuit breaker
Watthourmeter
Connection to distribution system Distribution transformer
Distribution system
Substation
Capacitors
Circuit breakers
Disconnects
Buses
Transformers
banks
Subtransmission system
Tap changers
Current transformers
Potential transformers
Protective relaying
Reactors
Metal-oxide varistors
Transmission system
Suspension insulators
Lightning arrestors
Generator step-up transformers
Generators
Capacitor
24
Objectives/Introductory Words:
Non-Electrical Components
Glass for bulbs
Manufacture of bulbs
Sockets
Switches
Circuit box
Steel for circuit box
Copper for wire
Aluminum for wire
Poles for overhead lines
Transmission towers
Maintenance
Plastics for capacitor insulation
Controls for protec. relaying schem.
Communications for data and protection Fiber optics for communications
Foundations for substation equipment
Excavation equipment and crews
Ceramics and polymers for
suspension insulators
Oil for transformers and circuit breakers
Gas for insulated substations
Springs for circuit breakers
Process control for component manufacturing
control
Computers for process control
Computers for generation
and dispatch
Turbines for turning generator
Coal for making steam to turn turbine
Trains for hauling coal
Cars
Bridges
People
25
Objectives/Introductory Words:
Basics Facts, Issues and Questions
Electricity discovery and development
The value of electricity as a commodity
Voltage and current, AC vs DC, single phase vs three phase
What is the difference between power and energy?
Reactive power, power factor and power factor correction
How is electricity generated?
Costs and characteristics of different types of generation traditional and emerging
(fossil, nuclear, hydro, wind, solar, fuel cell, microturbine, etc.)
System impacts of distributed generation
How can electricity be stored?
Generation Transmission Distribution
Why are different voltage levels use?
Why do we have overhead lines instead of all underground?
Why do we interconnect?
26
Objectives/Introductory Words:
Power system operation and control
Typical load demand cycles: daily, seasonal; Load forecasting
How is power transmitted from one place to another and what are the costs?
Differences between short, medium and long lines
Why is it important to maintain frequency, voltages, synchronism, etc.?
Active and reactive power losses, voltage drop, reactive power transfer
How is frequency maintained?
Technical issues
Power system limits, stability
Power system reliability, security, contingencies, reserve margins
Lightning and Over-voltage Protection
Harmonics and distortion and their effects
Voltage sags and short-term interruptions: causes and effects
Power system transients (switching, fault initiation and clearing, transient recovery voltage)
27
Objectives/Introductory Words:
Regulatory and policy issues
History of regulation in the US and abroad
Federal and National organizations
Conservation: what works and are there new ideas?
The role of regulators in the US
Electricity restructuring
The role of the US Federal vs. State governments
What happened in California?
28
Objectives/Introductory Words:
Historical Context
Static electricity discovered about 600 BC by Thales.
Electromagnetism studied systematically by William Gilbert, 1600
First battery, Allessandro Volta, 1800
Relationship between current and magnetism, Andre Ampere, 1825
Ohms law, George Ohm, 1827
Faradays law, Michael Faraday, 1831
Maxwells Equations, James Clerk Maxwell, 1864
First practical generator and motor, Zenobe Thoephile Gramme, 1873
Incandescent Lamp, Thomas Edison, 1879
First power station Pearl Street, Manhattan, Thomas Edison, 1882
First Hydroelectric plant, Appleton Wisconsin, 1882
DC motor produced, Frank J. Sprague, 1884
Transformer demonstrated, William Stanley, 1886
Polyphase AC system, induction and synchronous motors, Nicola Tesla, 1888
First single-phase Transmission line in US, Oregon, 1889 - By 1900, over 3000
Stations
29
Objectives/Introductory Words:
Recent Developments
High-speed relay systems
High-speed, EHV circuit breakers
Surge Arresters (MOVs)
Communications applications in power systems
Energy control centers with SCADA and AGC
Development of power electronics devices
Adjustable speed drives / motors
Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles
Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS)
Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)
30
Objectives/Introductory Words:
Current Issues
Two extensive outages in 1996
July 2, 1996
Combined issues of Power system stability
Protective Relaying
System Planning
Two million customers affected in 14 states, Canada and Mexico
Initiating event related to power line touching a tree
August 10, 1996
4 million customers affected in 9 states
Initiating event: over heated transmission lines sag to trees
Utility Deregulation
The intention is that removing state regulation from utility operation will reduce prices.
A number of states already have legislation in place requiring deregulation, California is
already phasing it in.
31
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
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12 - 34,5 kV
Itaip
Per Generator
750 MVA, 18 kV => 24.000 A
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
Transformation
Transformer to 500 kV
890 A
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
7,2 kV
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
... Transmission
7,2 kV
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
Substations
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
LT Nova Ponte So Gotardo Bom Despacho 500 kV
LT Nova Ponte Estreito 500 kV
LT Arauai 2 Irap
230 kV
LT Emborcao Nova
Ponte 500 kV
LT Itumbiara Nova
Ponte 500 kV
PMS/UNIFEI/GQEE
Jurupari-Macap 230kV
Tucuru-Manaus
500 kV
Acre/RondniaSE/CO 230 kV
Norte-Nordeste
500 kV
Norte-Sul III
500 kV
Reforos nas
Regies SE/CO
500 kV
Sul-Sudeste
525 kV
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Transformers
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Objectives/Introductory Words:
Analytical Background
Mechanical Energy
Rotational Energy
Electrical Energy
Power
Electrical Power
Plus
Circuit Analysis
Electronics
Signal Processing
Communications
Controls
Economics
71
Why do we use Alternating Current (AC) for
Electric Power?
Construction of Generators:Key component is the 3 phase generator
Simple in raising and lowering voltages:
Generators limited to about 25kV
Transmission at 345,500 and 765kV (low losses)
Subtransmission at 115, 69, 22kV
Distribution at 12, 8, 4kV
Key component:
power transformer
72
Power Generation
Itaipu - One 715 MW electrical generator
The diameter of the rotor is almost 16 m, the
rotating mass is 2 650 t
73
Voltage from generator to Customer
Typical voltages for different parts
of the American power system:
System Type From
To
Residential
110 V
220 V (split single Phase)
Commercial
480 V
(three Phase)
Industrial
480 V
4160 V.
Distribution
2300 V
32000 V
Subtransmission
25 kV
Transmission 115 kV
765 kV
Generation
36 kV
13.2 kV
130 kV
74
Power Transformers
75
Substations: where transmission lines interconnect
76
Where does AC come from?
AC voltages and currents are usually produced by rotating
generators in a power system and are represented by sine
waves
AC voltages and currents can also be produced by an
electronic oscillator.
77
A one phase AC generator
78
Phase Angle
For AC circuits we must be concerned with
the phase angle between voltage and
current.
Current may be in phase with voltage in
which case the phase angle is zero
Current may lead or lag voltage
79
AC Power and Phasors
A phasor is a representation of a sinusoidal voltage or current as
a vector rotating about the origin of the complex plane.
Example of Voltage and current calculations without phasors:
For a simple RL circuit with the above excitation voltage, find
the current:
This becomes a very difficult problem to solve, with the solution:
80
AC Power and Phasors
Eulers Equation
voltages using rotating vectors (called phasors)
Representation of voltages and currents as complex numbers:
We then shorten the notation, assuming that all phasors that will be used in a system are at the same
frequency, the (ejwt) term is implicit in all references to the value. Another assumption that is made is
that the magnitude of any voltage or current as a function of time is the real part of its complex
representation. Hence,
may be represented in any of the following ways:
being called the exponential, polar, and rectangular forms respectively, where
is the root mean square (rms) of the voltage wave form.
Definition of RMS
81
AC Power and Phasors
Phasor representation of Resistance, Inductance, Capacitance
Advantages of Phasors
Less Cumbersome (short hand notation)
Simpler Calculations (complex arithmetic, calculators can do), generally less need
for integration and differentiation
Additional insights may be obtained about relations between currents, voltages,
and power
Limitations
Applies only to sinusoidal steady-state systems
Power Calculated using phasors is only the time average
82
Voltage and Current are the same
(phase angle is zero)
83
Current leads voltage by a phase
angle of 45 deg
84
Current lags voltage by a phase
angle of 45 deg
85
Instantaneous Power in an
AC Circuit
Multiply Voltage at time t by the current at time t.
Note that power may flow in both directions.
HW 1 - Verify behavior of AC instantaneous power (using MathCAD,
Mathematica, PSpice). Assume sinusoidal (different phase-shifts) and nonsinusoidal voltages / currents. Use a half-wave rectification load to generate a
non-sinusoidal load. Interpret the results.
86
Instantaneous Power in an
AC Circuit
Phase angle zero
Current leading
Voltage by
45 degrees
87
Instantaneous Power in an
AC Circuit
Current leading
Voltage by
90 deg
Current lagging Voltage
by
90 deg
88
Average Real Power
89
Complex Power Real and Reactive
90
Real and Reactive Power
Instantaneous power may flow in both directions
Instantaneous power may be broken up into two
components:
Real Power only flows in one direction, its
average value is zero or positive
Reactive Power always oscillates in one
direction and then reverses an equal amount. Its
average value is always zero.
91
Real and Reactive Power in an
AC Circuit
Phase Angle zero
Current leading Voltage
by
45 degrees
92
Real and Reactive Power in an
AC Circuit
Current leading
Voltage by
90 deg
Current lagging
Voltage by
90 deg
93
What is RMS voltage and current?
If we use DC voltage and current then the power
delivered to a load is:
If we are given an AC voltage and current that are
in phase then:
Where
94
Why must we use RMS voltages and currents?
Use RMS so that the product of voltage and
current gives the correct power value, or the
effective value of energy delivered per second to
the load.
If the current is not in phase with the voltage then:
The reactive power is
95
What is MVA, MW and MVARS
MW for Mega Watts (millions of watts)
The product of RMS voltage and RMS current is
the MVA (mega volt amperes) being delivered by
a circuit.
96
What is a 3 Phase AC system?
Three phase is generated by a generator with three
sets of independent windings which are physically
spaced 120 degrees around the stator.
Voltages are labeled phase a, phase b, and phase c
and are the same magnitude but differ in phase
angle by 120 degrees.
97
3 Phase Generator
98
3 Phase Voltages
99
Representing Three Phase voltages using Phasors
100
Why use 3 phases?
Smooth torque on generator shaft
Delivery of constant power to a 3 phase load
3 Wires and not 6
What about unbalanced conditions?
101
Single Phase Circuit
Current = I
Voltage=
V 0 deg
Requires 2 wires to deliver power
102
3 phase circuit
Phase a
Voltage a=
V 0 deg
Voltage c=
V +120 deg
Neutral
3 Phase
Load
Voltage b=
V -120 deg
Phase b
Phase c
If the three phase load is balanced the neutral
carries no current and can be eliminated.
103
3 phase circuit without a
neutral wire
Phase a
Voltage a=
V 0 deg
3 Phase
Load
Voltage c=
V +120 deg
Voltage b=
V -120 deg
Phase b
Phase c
104
3 Phase Quantities
Ia
Ia
Va
Iab
Vab
Va
Vc
Vb
105
Voltage Drop and Reactive Power Compensation
V1 = 13.2*10^3 + j0
P&Q
V2 / 2
I
ZLine = 1 +j7
ZLoad = 10 +j30
C=?
HW 2 - Calculate the voltage at the receiving end of the line. If the voltage is
too low, compute the size of the capacitor which will recover the voltage to
the same value of the sending end. Use MathCAD/Mathematica to calculate
the value of C and then PSpice to verify behavior.
106
AC Power - Class Exercise
Calculate the real and reactive power absorbed by the two configurations below (as a function of V, R
and L).
R
V 0 deg
XL
V 0 deg
XL
107
AC Transmission - Power Flow - HW 3
Bus 2
Bus 1
Z = R +jX
V1 deg
V2 deg
S12 = P12 + jQ12
Demonstrate that
What happens when R<<X ?
108
Network Equations
KCL and KVL in phasor domain
Formulation of mesh equations
Formulation of nodal equations
Conversion of system of equations to matrices
Matrix operations
Inverse
Transpose
Conjugate
Solution of matrix equations
Example Discussion (Admittance and Impedance Matrix)
109
AC Power Transmission lines usually consist of
multiples of three wires
Short, Medium, Long Lines
What is the difference?
110
Transmission lines
Short
Medium
Long
111
Double Circuit Lines
112
Transmission Line Design Considerations
Conductors
Conductor types
ACSR
AAC
AAAC
ACAR
Configurations
bundles
Insulators
Porcelain
Polymer
Support Structures
Wood
Lattice
Tubular Steel
Concrete
Fiberglass
Shield Wires
Ground Wires
Lightning Protection
Electrical factors
Resistance and thermal loading
Dielectric integrity and clearance
Inductance
Capacitance
Mechanical Factors
Structural Integrity
Vibration
Thermal
Environmental Factors
Visual Impact
EM exposure
Right of Way
Danger to Wildlife
113
Transmission Line Equations
Transmission Line Differential Equations
All Aluminium Conductors (AAC)
Aluminium Conductors Steel Re-inforce (ACSR)
All Aluminium Alloy Conductors (AAAC)
Derived from differential equations
Two Port Network Representation
114
Generators
Power Transformers
The Per Unit System
115
Generation /Generators
http://hydropower.inel.gov/state/stateres.htm
116
Generation /Generators
HW 4 - Analyze the actual composition of US power sources (compare with
other countries) and propose a more sustainable / realistic composition.
Use the internet for your research - substantiate your considerations.
117
Why use very high voltages?
In this example the load is connected through a
transmission line with resistance R. The motor is designed
to operate at the same voltage as the generator terminal
voltage. Losses are large and motor voltage is low.
Discuss DC vs. AC and importance of Reactive Power
on AC systems for voltage regulation.
118
Why use very high voltages?
Transformer increases voltage to 10 times
the generator terminal voltage. Current in
transmission line is 1/10 I, losses are 1/100,
and motor voltage is V-IR/100
119
High Voltage Transmission
Reduces losses
Transmission conductor can have a smaller cross
section
Provides better voltage regulation at the load bus
120
Power Transformers
121
Transformer Basics
122
Power IN = Power OUT
This neglects the internal losses in the transformer
123
Real Transformers
Test to Determine Parameters
Open Circuit Test:
Energize Low voltage winding at rated voltage, leaving other
winding open
Measure Current (Ioc) and Power (Poc) into energized winding.
Calculate Re+h and Xm
Short Circuit Test:
Energize Low current (high voltage) winding at rated current
with a solid short circuit applied across the other winding
Measure Voltage and Power at terminals of energized winding
Calculate other parameters
124
Real Transformers
Transformer Types
Power Transformers
Current Transformers
Voltage Transformers
Series Transformers
Transformer Purchasing Issues
Efficiency
Audible Noise
Installation Costs
Manufacturing Facilities
Performance Record
Questions? Discussions...
125
Tap Changing Transformers
Changing taps changes the turns ratio
126
Auto Transformer used for Tap Changing Under
Load or
TCUL Transformer
127
TCUL Transformer
Assume primary side voltage begins to go
down with heavy load
TCUL transformer changes taps to keep
secondary voltage within limits
Raise secondary voltage during heavy load
Reduce secondary voltage during light load
128
Three-Phase Transformers
Transformer Connections
Each leg is a single phase transformer
Y-Y connections (no phase shift)
connections (no phase shift)
Y- connections (-30 degrees phase shift)
Y connections (+30 degrees phase shift)
129
The Per Unit System
Allows engineers to analyze a single phase
network where:
All P and Q quantities are three phase
Voltage magnitudes are represented as a
fractional part of their standard or base value
All phase angles are represented in the same
units as normally used
130
Advantages
1. Per-unit representation results in a more meaningful and correlated data. It gives relative magnitude
information.
2. There will be less chance of missing up between single - and three-phase powers or between line and phase
voltages.
3. The p.u. system is very useful in simulating machine systems on analog, digital, and hybrid computers for
steady-state and dynamic analysis.
4. Manufacturers usually specify the impedance of a piece of apparatus in p.u. (or per cent) on the base of the
name plate rating of power ( ) and voltage ( ). Hence, it can be used directly if the bases chosen are the same as
the name plate rating.
5. The p.u. value of the various apparatus lie in a narrow range, though the actual values vary widely.
6. The p.u. equivalent impedance (Zsc) of any transformer is the same referred to either primary or secondary
side. For complicated systems involving many transformers or different turns ratio, this advantage is a
significant one in that a possible cause of serious mistakes is removed.
7. Though the type of transformer in 3-phase system, determine the ratio of voltage bases, the p.u. impedance
is the same irrespective of the type of 3-phase transformer. (Y D , D Y, D D , or Y Y)
8. Per-unit method allows the same basic arithmetic operation resulting in per-phase end values, without
having to worry about the factor '100' which occurs in per cent system.
131
Conversion Procedure
-Specify the MVA base. Typically this will be related to the rating of a generator,
transformer, or transmission line. Just choose the one that will result in the least
amount of computation. This base will remain constant throughout the system.
-At any location in the circuit, specify a voltage base. This will typically be the
nominal voltage for that particular location.
-Determine the voltage base for all other areas in the circuit by adjusting by the
turns ratio every time a transformer is encountered.
-Having specified the voltage and MVA base throughout the system, current and
impedance bases may be determined as:
-For each value, the per unit quantity is the actual value divided by the base value.
-For 3phase circuits, the following relationships must also be included:
132
Set Up the Per Unit System
Each region of the power system is uniquely
defined by a standard voltage determined by the
transformer windings, this sets base voltage
The entire system is given a base power to which
everything in the power flow is referred
133
Per Unit Conversions
134
Sample Power System
135
Power System Divided into base voltage regions
136
Numerical Example
Let. V = 118 00 volts
Z = 5 300 ohms
Then I = 23.6 -300 amperes
& S = V I* = (118 00)(23.6 +300) va
= 2,784.8 300 va
For this example, it is appropriate to choose:
SlB = 3,000 va
VlB = 120-volts
Then IlB = = 25 amperes
& ZlB = = 4.8 ohms
137
138
A three phase system consists of a generator, two transformers, two transmission lines, and two loads, as follows:
G1
is a 300 MVA generator rated at 25 kV, with an impedance of .05 p.u. (Assume that generator is operating at rated terminal
voltage)
T1
is a bank of three single phase 25 kV/199.2 kV transformers, each rated at 100 MVA, connected D-Y with a leakage reactance
of 2.5%
T2
is a three phase 200 MVA transformer rated 345 kV/13.8 kV, with X=j.08.
T3
is a three phase 1 MVA transformer rated 345 kV/4160, with X=j.02.
L1
is a transmission line having an impedance of j75 W
L2
is a distribution line having an impedance of j5 W
Z1
is an industrial facility with an effective impedance
of 1 ohm at .85 power factor lagging
Z2
is a substation load with an effective impedance
of 17.5 ohm at .7 power factor leading
Using the MVA and voltage bases of the generator,
Draw the per unit equivalent circuit, neglecting shunt elements in transformers
Calculate the total current and power delivered by the generator (give answers in per unit and actual values).
Calculate the magnitude of the terminal voltage of load Z1 (per unit and actual).
139
Typical Per Unit Quantities
Voltages: 0.95 to 1.05 pu volts
System Base 100MVA
Real Power: 100 MW = 1.0 pu, 1000MW=10pu
Transmission Line: All quantities in per unit
140
Transmission Line Model
141
The Power Flow
Used to design the power system
Used to upgrade the power system
Used to study the power system in real time for
secure operation
By far the most useful calculation used by power
system engineers
142
The Power Flow
The Power Flow Problem
Compute voltage magnitude and phase angle at each bus
Calculate real and reactive power flow through all equipment
Input Data
Transmission line data
Transformer Data
Bus Data
Bus Type Known Parameters Unknown Parameters
Swing Bus V=1<0o
P, Q
Load Bus P+jQ
V, delta
Gen Bus (Voltage Control)
V, P
Q, delta
143
Power Flow Equations
144
Power Flow Bus Operation
Load Bus: uses both P and Q equation
Solves for V and
Generation Bus: Uses only the P equation and
assumes V to be fixed (regulated voltage)
Reference or swing bus, assumes V and are
fixed (no P or Q equation possible.
145
Power Flow
Figure from Power World Simulator
146
Power Flow Standard Printout
BUS
1 Bus 1
GENERATOR 1
LOAD 1
TO
2 Bus 2
TO
3 Bus 3
345.0
MW
141.16
100.00
1 -36.75
1
77.91
MVAR
-14.21R
0.00
8.09
-22.30
MVA
141.9
100.0
37.6
81.0
BUS
2 Bus 2
GENERATOR 1
LOAD 1
TO
1 Bus 1
TO
4 Bus 4
345.0
MW
363.00
200.00
1
37.18
1 125.86
MVAR
100.22R
100.00
-5.83
6.05
MVA
376.6
223.6
37.6
126.0
BUS
3
LOAD 1
SWITCHED
TO
1
TO
4
Bus 3
SHUNT
Bus 1
Bus 4
345.0
MW
100.00
0.00
1 -76.92
1 -23.15
MVAR
15.00
81.33
27.55
38.71
MVA
101.1
81.3
81.7
45.1
27
23
BUS
TO
TO
TO
Bus
Bus
Bus
Bus
4
2
3
5
138.0
MW
1 -123.48
1
23.45
1 100.04
MVAR
6.66
-37.11
30.44
MVA
123.7
43.9
104.6
% 0.9813 -2.33 1 Home
49
22
10 0.9625TA
0.0
BUS
5 Bus 5
LOAD 1
TO
4 Bus 4
34.5
MW
100.00
1 -100.04
MVAR
20.00
-19.92
MVA
102.0
102.0
4
2
3
5
% 1.0000
0.00
2 2
3.51
1 Home
-3.73
1 Home
25
27
% 1.0000
25
50
% 1.0083
% 0.9946
10
-7.99
0.9625NT
1 Home
0.0
147
Linear Power Flow Analysis
Ignore bus Voltage Magnitude (only be concerned with bus
phase angle)
Ignore reactive power flows and loads (only be concerned
with MW flow)
Ignore transmission line resistance and charging
capacitance
Accuracy suffers!
148
Linear Power Flow Equation
149
How does
power flow?
Flow from production
point to purchase point
uses every transmission
path available
Flow on each
intermediate
transmission facility is
determined by its
impedance
150
Power Transfer Distribution Factors (PTDFs)
151
Line Outage Distribution Factors (LODFs)
PTDFs and LODFs can be combined to calculate the
resulting post contingency flow with a large transaction.
152
Load Flow Problem
Load flow calculations are used to determine the voltage, current,
and real and reactive power at various points in a power system
under normal steady-state conditions.
For power systems with a large number of buses, the load flow
problem becomes computationally intensive. Therefore, for large
power systems, the load flow is solved using specific programs
based on iterative techniques, such as the Newton-Raphson
method.
Power systems of smaller size, however, require considerably
less computational effort, and load flow algorithms can be
developed which function easily on personal computers.
153
Load Flow Problem
The approach used here for solving the load flow is based on the
Newton-Raphson iterative method. The required input to the
problem is the generated and load power at each bus and the
voltage magnitude on generating buses.
This information is acquired from load data and the normal system
operating conditions. The solution provides the voltage magnitude
and phase angle at all buses and the power flows and losses of the
transmission lines.
154
Load Flow Problem
For load flow calculations, the system buses are classified into three types:
The slack bus: There is only one such bus in the system. Due to losses in the network, the real
and reactive power cannot be known at all buses. Therefore, the slack bus will provide the
necessary power to maintain the power balance in the system. The slack bus is usually a bus
where generation is available. For this bus, the voltage magnitude and phase angle are specified
(normally the voltage phase angle is set to zero degrees). The voltage phase angle of all other
buses is expressed with the slack bus voltage phasor as reference.
The generating or PV-bus: This bus type represents the generating stations of the system. The
information known for PV-buses is the net real power generation and bus-voltage magnitude.
The net real power generation is the generated real power minus the real power of any local load.
The load or PQ-bus: For these buses, the net real and reactive power is known. PQ-buses
normally do not have generators. However, if the reactive power of a generator reaches its limit,
the corresponding bus is treated as a PQ-bus. This is equivalent to adjusting the bus voltage until
the generator reactive power falls within the prescribed limits.
Distribution substations and feeders may be treated as generating buses in distribution networks.
155
Load Flow Problem
The load flow equations are written in terms of the net power injection to each
bus. With reference to figure below, the net power injection into the kth bus is
the combination of generated and load power. The power flowing out of this
bus must equal the net injected power. Therefore, the power balance equation
at the kth bus is written as follows in terms of the system voltage
where
N is the number of network buses,
Pk is the net real power injected into the kth bus,
Qk is the net reactive power injected into the kth bus,
Yk,i is the total admittance between bus k and i: this
total can be found from the bus admittance matrix,
Ybus, of the system,
Vi is the voltage of the ith bus.
156
Load Flow Problem
where k,n is the angle of the admittance, Yk,n, and j is the voltage phase angle at bus, j.
A real power equation is written for every PV- and PQ-bus and a reactive power equation is
written for every PQ-bus. Thus, for a power system with N buses of which L are PQ-buses
there are (N-1) real power equations (excluding the slack bus) and L reactive power
equations (a total of N-1+L equations). The unknowns are the magnitude and phase angle
of the L PQ-bus voltages and the phase angle of the (N-1-L) PV-bus voltages (a total of N1+L unknowns).
The left-hand side of these equations are known and an iterative process is used for finding
the unknown voltages and phase angles such the above equations are balanced.
157
Load Flow Problem
The Newton-Raphson method provides a reliable approach for solving non-linear equations such as
the previous equations. The main advantages of this method are its convergence characteristics and
its speed. The procedure for applying the Newton-Raphson method is as follows:
From the network configuration and parameters the bus-admittance matrix is constructed. The
elements of this matrix are used to calculate the power flows according to the equations.
Each network bus is assigned a type and, accordingly, information about the bus real and reactive
power and bus voltage is collected.
From the above steps, the load flow equations can be assembled into the following form, with
reference to previous equations:
where
P is the vector of the known net real power injections at PV- and PQ-buses,
Q is the vector of the known reactive power injections at PQ-buses,
V is the vector of the unknown bus voltage magnitudes,
is the vector of the unknown bus voltage phase angles, and
fp, fq are functions defined according to Equations (3.1.2).
158
Load Flow Problem
Solution of the load flow problem requires finding the values of V and such that the righthand side of the equation equals the known power injections at the network buses. For any
estimation of V and , the difference between the known power injections, P and Q and the
power injections calculated by the equation is called the power mismatch.
where S is the net real and reactive power mismatch:
The power mismatch is a measure of how close to the solution the estimations of V and
are. A correction to these estimations is obtained using the Newton-Raphson method,
resulting in an iterative calculation process.
where the superscript, j, denotes variables calculated at the jth iteration step. J is the Jacobian matrix of the
equations:
159
The iteration process continues until the power mismatch at the jth step is smaller than a preset number .
To start the above iterative solution, an estimation of the unknown voltages and their phase angles is
required. This first solution approximation is called initial guess. Typically, the initial guess for the
voltage magnitudes is 1 pu and for their phase angles is 0 degrees (or radians).
160
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