Recursive Definitions

and Structural Induction

CS/APMA 202
Rosen section 3.4
Aaron Bloomfield
1

Recursion
Recursion means defining something,
such as a function, in terms of itself

For example, let f(x) = x!

We can define f(x) as f(x) = x * f(x-1)

Recursion example
Rosen, section 3.4, question 1

a)

Find f(1), f(2), f(3), and f(4), where f(0) = 1

Let f(n+1) = f(n) + 2
f(1) = f(0) + 2 = 1 + 2 = 3
f(2) = f(1) + 2 = 3 + 2 = 5
f(3) = f(2) + 2 = 5 + 2 = 7
f(4) = f(3) + 2 = 7 + 2 = 9

b)

Let f(n+1) = 3f(n)

f(1) = 3 * f(0) = 3*1 = 3
f(2) = 3 * f(1) = 3*3 = 9
f(3) = 3 * f(2) = 3*9 = 27
f(4) = 3 * f(3) = 3*27 = 81
3

Recursion example
Rosen, section 3.4, question 1

c)

Find f(1), f(2), f(3), and f(4), where f(0) = 1

Let f(n+1) = 2f(n)
f(1) = 2f(0) = 21 = 2
f(2) = 2f(1) = 22 = 4
f(3) = 2f(2) = 24 = 16
f(4) = 2f(3) = 216 = 65536

d)

Let f(n+1) = f(n)2 + f(n) + 1

f(1) = f(0)2 + f(0) + 1 = 12 + 1 + 1 = 3
f(2) = f(1)2 + f(0) + 1 = 32 + 3 + 1 = 13
f(3) = f(2)2 + f(0) + 1 = 132 + 13 + 1 = 183
f(4) = f(3)2 + f(0) + 1 = 1832 + 183 + 1 = 33673
4

Fractals
A fractal is a pattern that uses recursion

The pattern itself repeats indefinitely

Fractals

Fibonacci sequence
Definition of the Fibonacci sequence
Non-recursive:

1 5 1 5
F ( n)

Recursive:
or:

F(n) = F(n-1) + F(n-2)

F(n+1) = F(n) + F(n-1)

5 2n

Must always specify base case(s)!

F(1) = 1, F(2) = 1
Note that some will use F(0) = 1, F(1) = 1
7

Fibonacci sequence in Java

long Fibonacci (int n) {
if ( (n == 1) || (n == 2) )
return 1;
else
return Fibonacci (n-1) + Fibonacci (n-2);
}
long Fibonacci2 (int n) {
return (long) ((Math.pow((1.0+Math.sqrt(5.0)),n)Math.pow((1.0-Math.sqrt(5.0)),n)) /
(Math.sqrt(5) * Math.pow(2,n)));
}

Recursion definition
From The Hackers Dictionary:
recursion n. See recursion.
tail recursion.

See also

Bad recursive definitions

Consider:

f(0) = 1
f(n) = 1 + f(n-2)
What is f(1)?

Consider:

f(0) = 1
f(n) = 1+f(-n)
What is f(1)?

10

Defining sets via recursion

Same two parts:

Base case (or basis step)

Recursive step

Example: the set of positive integers

Basis step: 1 S
Recursive step: if x S, then x+1 S

11

Defining sets via recursion

Rosen, section 3.4, question 24: give recursive
definitions for:
a)

The set of odd positive integers

b)

The set of positive integer powers of 3

c)

1S
If x S, then x+2 S
3S
If x S, then 3*x S

The set of polynomials with integer coefficients

0S
If p(x) S, then p(x) + cxn S

c Z, n Z and n 0

12

Defining strings via recursion

Terminology

is the empty string:

is the set of all letters: { a, b, c, , z }
The set of letters can change depending on the problem

We can define a set of strings * as follows

Base step: *
If w * and x , then wx *
Thus, * s the set of all the possible strings that can
be generated with the alphabet
Is this countably infinite or uncountably infinite?
13

Defining strings via recursion

Let = { 0, 1 }
Thus, * is the set of all binary numbers

Or all binary strings

Or all possible computer files

14

String length via recursion

How to define string length recursively?

Basis step: l() = 0

Recursive step: l(wx) = l(w) + 1 if w * and x

Example: l(aaa)

l(aaa) = l(aa) + 1
l(aa) = l(a) + 1
l(a) = l() + 1
l() = 0
Result: 3
15

Todays demotivators

16

Strings via recursion example

Rosen, section 3.4, question 38: Give a
recursive definition for the set of string that
are palindromes

We will define set P, which is the set of all

palindromes

Basis step: P

Second basis step: x P when x

Recursive step: xpx P if x and p P

17

Strings and induction example

This requires structural induction, which
will be covered later in this slide set

18

Recursion pros
Easy to program
Easy to understand

19

Recursion cons
Consider the recursive Fibonacci generator
How many recursive calls does it make?

F(1): 1
F(2): 1
F(3): 3
F(4): 5
F(5): 9
F(10): 109
F(20): 13,529
F(30): 1,664,079
F(40): 204,668,309
F(50): 25,172,538,049
F(100): 708,449,696,358,523,830,149 7 * 1020

At 1 billion recursive calls per second (generous), this would take over
22,000 years
But that would also take well over 1012 Gb of memory!
20

Trees
Rooted trees:

A graph containing nodes and edges

Cannot contain a cycle!

Cycle not allowed in a tree

21

Rooted trees
Recursive definition:

Basis step: A single vertex r is a rooted tree

Recursive step:
Let T1, T2, , Tn be rooted trees
Form a new tree with a new root r that contains an edge
to the root of each of the trees T1, T2, , Tn

22

(Extended) Binary trees

Recursive definition

Basis step: The empty set is an extended binary tree

Recursive step:
Let T1, and T2 be extended binary trees
Form a new tree with a new root r
Form a new tree such that T1 is the left subtree,
and T2 is the right subtree

23

Full binary trees

Recursive definition

Basis step: A full binary tree consisting only of the vertex r

Recursive step:
Let T1, and T2 be extended binary trees
Form a new tree with a new root r
Form a new tree T such that T1 is the left subtree,
and T2 is the right subtree
This is denoted by T = T T
1
2

Note the only difference between a regular

binary tree and a full one is the basis step
24

Binary tree height

h(T) denotes the height of tree T
Recursive definition:

Basis step: The height of a tree with

only one node r is 0
Recursive step:
Let T1 and T2 be binary trees
The binary tree T = T1T2 has height
h(T) = 1 + max ( h(T1), h(T2) )

This definition can be generalized to

non-binary trees
25

Binary tree size

n(T) denotes the number of vertices in tree T
Recursive definition:

Basis step: The number of vertices of an

empty tree is 0
Basis step: The number of vertices of a tree
with only one node r is 1
Recursive step:
Let T1 and T2 be binary trees
The number of vertices in binary tree T = T1T2 is:
n(T) = 1 + n(T1) + n(T2)

This definition can be generalized to nonbinary trees

26

A bit of humor: Computer

terminology

27

Recursion vs. induction

Consider
factorial:

the

recursive

definition

f(0) = 1
Base case

f(n) = n * f(n-1)
The step

Sort of like induction

28

for

Recursion vs. induction

Rosen, section 3.4, example 7 (page 262)
Consider the set of all integers that are multiples
of 3

{ 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, }
{ x | x = 3k and k Z+ }

Recursive definition:

Basis step: 3 S
Recursive step: If x S and y S, then x+y S
29

Recursion vs. induction

Proof via induction: prove that S contains all the integers
that are divisible by 3

Let A be the set of all ints divisible by 3

Show that S = A

Two parts:

Show that S A

Let P(n) = 3n S
Base case: P(1) = 3*1 S

By the basis step of the recursive definition

Inductive hypothesis: assume P(k) = 3*k S is true

Inductive step: show that P(k+1) = 3*(k+1) is true

3*(k+1) = 3k+3
3k S by the inductive hypothesis
3 S by the base case
Thus, 3k+3 S by the recursive definition

Show that A S

Done in the text, page 267 (not reproduced here)

30

What did we just do?

Notice what we did:

Showed the base case

Assumed the inductive hypothesis
For the inductive step, we:
Showed that each of the parts were in S

The parts being 3k and 3

Showed that since both parts were in S, by the

recursive definition, the combination of those parts
is in S

i.e., 3k+3 S

This is called structural induction31

Structural induction
A more convenient form of induction for
recursively defined things
Used in conjunction with the recursive definition
Three parts:

Basis step: Show the result holds for the elements in

the basis step of the recursive definition
Inductive hypothesis: Assume that the statement is
true for some existing elements
Usually, this just means assuming the statement is true

Recursive step: Show that the recursive definition

allows the creation of a new element using the
existing elements
32

Tree structural induction example

Rosen, section 3.4, question 43
Show that n(T) 2h(T) + 1
Basis step: Let T be the full binary
tree of just one node r

h(T) = 0
n(T) = 1
n(T) 2h(T) + 1
1 2*0 + 1
11
34

Tree structural induction example

Show that n(T) 2h(T) + 1
Inductive hypothesis:

Let T1 and T2 be full binary trees

Assume that n(T1) 2h(T1) + 1 for some tree T1

Assume that n(T2) 2h(T2) + 1 for some tree T2

Recursive step:

Let T = T1 T2
Here the operator means creating a new tree with a root note r and subtrees
T1 and T2
New element is T

By the definition of height and size, we know:

n(T) = 1 + n(T1) + n(T2)
h(T) = 1 + max ( h(T1), h(T2) )

Therefore:
n(T) = 1 + n(T1) + n(T2)
1 + 2h(T1) + 1 + 2h(T2) + 1
1 + 2*max ( h(T1), h(T2) ) the sum of two non-neg #s is at least
as large as the larger of the two
= 1 + 2*h(T)

Thus, n(T) 2h(T) + 1

35

String structural induction example

Rosen, section 3.4, question 32
Part (a): Give the definition for ones(s), which counts the
number of ones in a bit string s
Let = { 0, 1 }
Basis step: ones() = 0
Recursive step: ones(wx) = ones(w) + x

Where x and w *
Note that x is a bit: either 0 or 1
36

String structural induction example

Part (b): Use structural induction to prove that ones(st) = ones(s) +
ones(t)
Basis step: t =

ones (s) = ones(s) = ones(s)+0 = ones(s) + ones()

Inductive hypothesis: Assume ones(st) = ones(s) + ones(t)

Recursive step: Want to show that ones(stx) = ones(s) + ones(tx)

Where s, t * and x
New element is ones(stx)
ones (stx) = ones ((st)x))
= x+ones(st)
= x + ones(s) + ones(t)
= ones(s) + (x + ones(t))
= ones(s) + ones(tx)
Proven!

by associativity of concatenation
by recursive definition
by inductive hypothesis
by commutativity and assoc. of +
by recursive definition
37

Quick survey

a)
b)
c)
d)

I feel I understand structural

induction
Very well
With some review, Ill be good
Not really
Not at all

38

Human stupidity

39

Induction methods compared

Used for

Assumption

Weak
mathematical

Strong
Mathematical

Usually
formulae

Usually formulae not

provable via
mathematical induction

Assume P(k)

Assume P(1), P(2), ,

P(k)

What to
prove

True for
P(k+1)

True for P(k+1)

Step 1
called

Base case

Base case

Step 3
called

Inductive step

Inductive step

Structural
Only things defined
via recursion
Assume statement is
true for some "old"
elements
Statement is true for
some "new" elements
created with "old"
elements
Basis step
Recursive step
40

Induction types compared

Show that F(n) < 2n

Where F(n) is the nth Fibonacci number

Actually F(n) < 20.7*n, but we wont prove that here

Fibonacci definition:

Basis step: F(1) = 1 and F(2) = 1

Recursive step: F(n) = F(n-1) + F(n-2)

Base case (or basis step): Show true for F(1)

and F(2)

F(1) = 1 < 21 = 2
F(2) = 1 < 22 = 4
41

Via weak mathematical induction

Inductive hypothesis: Assume F(k) < 2k
Inductive step: Prove F(k+1) < 2k+1

F(k+1) = F(k) + F(k-1)

We know F(k) < 2k by the inductive hypothesis
Each term is less than the next, therefore
F(k) > F(k-1)
Thus, F(k-1) < F(k) < 2k

Therefore, F(k+1) = F(k) + F(k-1) < 2k + 2k = 2k+1

Proven!

42

Via strong mathematical induction

Inductive hypothesis: Assume F(1) < 21,
F(2) < 22, , F(k-1) < 2k-1, F(k) < 2k
Inductive step: Prove F(k+1) < 2k+1

F(k+1) = F(k) + F(k-1)

We know F(k) < 2k by the inductive hypothesis
We know F(k-1) < 2k-1 by the inductive
hypothesis
Therefore, F(k) + F(k-1) < 2k + 2k-1 < 2k+1
Proven!
43

Via structural induction

Inductive hypothesis: Assume F(n) < 2n
Recursive step:

Show true for new element: F(n+1)

We know F(n) < 2n by the inductive hypothesis
Each term is less than the next, therefore
F(n) > F(n-1)
Thus, F(n-1) < F(n) < 2n

Therefore, F(n) + F(n-1) < 2n + 2n = 2n+1

Proven!
44

Another way via structural induction

Inductive hypothesis: Assume F(n) < 2n and
F(n-1) < 2n-1

The difference here is we are using two old

elements versus one, as in the last slide

Recursive step:

Show true for new element: F(n+1)

F(n+1) = F(n) + F(n-1)
We know F(n) < 2n by the inductive hypothesis
We know F(n-1) < 2n-1 by the inductive hypothesis
Therefore, F(n) + F(n-1) < 2k + 2k-1 < 2k+1
Proven!
45

But wait!
In this example, the structural induction proof
was essentially the same as the weak or strong
mathematical induction proof

Its hard to find an example that works well for all of

the induction types

Structural induction will work on some recursive

problems which weak or strong mathematical
induction will not

Trees, strings, etc.

46

A bit of humor

47

Section 3.4, question 8

Give the recursive definition of the following sequences

Note that many answers are possible!

a) an = 4n 2

Terms: 2, 6, 10, 14, 16, etc.

a1 = 2
an = an-1 + 4

b) an = 1 + (-1)n

Terms: 0, 2, 0, 2, 0, 2, etc.
a1 = 0, a2 = 2
an = an-2

c) an = n(n+1)

Terms: 2, 6, 12, 20, 30, 42, etc.

a1 = 2
an = an-1 + 2*n

d) an = n2

Terms: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, etc.

a1 = 1
an = an-1 + 2n - 1

48

Section 3.4, question 12

Show that f12 + f22 + f32 + + fn2 = fnfn+1
Base case: n = 1

f12 = f1f2
12 = 1*1

Inductive hypothesis: Assume

f12 + f22 + f32 + + fk2 = fkfk+1

Inductive step: Prove

f12 + f22 + f32 + + fk2 + fk+12 = fk+1fk+2

49

Section 3.4, question 12

Inductive hypothesis: Assume

f12 + f22 + f32 + + fk2 = fkfk+1

Inductive step: Prove

f12 + f22 + f32 + + fk2 + fk+12 = fk+1fk+2

fkfk+1 + fk+12 = fk+1fk+2

fkfk+1 + fk+12 = fk+1 (fk + fk+1)

fkfk+1 + fk+12 = fkfk+1 + fk+12
50

Section 3.4, question 13

Show that f1 + f2 + f3 + + f2n-1 = f2n
Base case: n = 1

f1 = f2*1
1=1

Inductive hypothesis: Assume

f1 + f2 + f3 + + f2k-1 = f2k

Inductive step: Prove

f1 + f2 + f3 + + f2k-1 + f2(k+1)-1 = f2(k+1)

f1 + f2 + f3 + + f2k-1 + f2k+1 = f2k+2

51

Section 3.4, question 13

Inductive hypothesis: Assume

f1 + f2 + f3 + + f2k-1 = f2k

Inductive step: Prove

f1 + f2 + f3 + + f2k-1 + f2k+1 = f2k+2

f2k + f2k+1 = f2k+2

True by definition of f2k+2

52

Section 3.4, question 22

Show that the set S defined by

Basis step: 1 S
Recursive step: s + t S when s S and t S

is the set of positive integers:

Z+ = { 1, 2, 3, }

Note the (somewhat recursive) definition of the positive integers:

1 is a positive integer
For any arbitrary n that is a positive integer, n+1 is also a positive integer

Proof by structural induction

Basis step: 1 S and 1 Z+
Inductive hypothesis: Assume k S
Recursive step: Show k+1 S

k S by the inductive hypothesis

1 S by the base case
53above
k+1 S by the recursive step of the recursive definition

Section 3.4, question 35

Give a recursive definition of the reversal of a
string
Basis step: R =

Note that the superscripted R means reversal of a

string

Recursive step: Consider a string w *

Rewrite w as vy where v * and y

v is the first n-1 characters in w
y is the last character in w

wR = y(vR)
Parentheses are for our benefit

54

Quick survey

a)
b)
c)
d)

I felt I understood the material in this

slide set
Very well
With some review, Ill be good
Not really
Not at all

55

Quick survey

a)
b)
c)
d)

The pace of the lecture for this

slide set was
Fast
About right
A little slow
Too slow

56

Quick survey

a)
b)
c)
d)

How interesting was the material in

this slide set? Be honest!
Wow! That was SOOOOOO cool!
Somewhat interesting
Rather borting
Zzzzzzzzzzz

57

Todays demotivators

58