PRINCIPLE OF

TOMOGRAPHY
& THEIR VARIOUS TYPES

M O D E R A T O R
MR S. C. BANSAL
LECTURER

P R E S E N T E D B Y
MANISH ANAND
B SC FINAL YEAR STUDENT

P O S T G R A D U A T E I N S T I T U T E O F M E D I C A L E D U C A T I O N A N D R E S E A R C H
C H A N D I G A R H
 I N T R O D U C T I O N

 The word tomography is derived from the two Greek words:

 Tomos (=slice) and

 Graphia (=describing).

 So the tomography is describing of slices by imaging it.

 Tomography is a radiographic technique that selects a level in

the body & blurs out structures below & above that plane

leaving a clear image of this selected anatomy.

 Tomography concerned with layer rather than plane. 2

 Need of Tomography:
 As we know that tomography records
cross-sectional image of selected layer,
so by using tomography, we can evaluate
the abnormality of that cross-section, that
is usually superimposed by underlying
and overlying structures in general
radiography.

If we want to see the debris of potato we

have to cut it into different slice, same in
tomography if we want to see any
underlying abnormality than we have to
image the cut section .
3
 A Brief History Of Tomography Invention

 It is a sobering thought that nearly 55% of what is done in

radiology today did not exist 20 years ago.
 There were no MRI , no ultrasound or CT.
 Since the introduction of radiology in medicine, a need to see
beyond the 2 dimensional image was gradually increasing, the
first approach was to view orthogonal radiographs and make a
mental 3D perception.
 But real major break through was tomography which is also
called planigraphy or body section radiography.

4
 History cont…

 The origin of tomography cannot be attributed to any person,

but the major credit goes to JEAN KIEFFAR , a radiological
technologist in US ,who developed the special radiographic
technique to demonstrate a from of TB that he had in 1928.
 His process was termed “Laminagraphy” by another American
J. ROBERT ANDREWS who assisted KIEFFAR in the
construction of this first tomographic device known as
LAMINAGRAPH.
5
 Basic Principle of Tomography:
• If there is synchronous
movement b/w either of two
among the three that is the
patient ,the x-ray tube or the
image receptor, than there is
blurring of image causes.
• While movement only one thing
is constant that is the fulcrum
point of the tomographic
equipment and the plane which
posses this point is well
demonstrated. It also results
blurring of image of that
structure which lie above and
below to that plane. 6
 contd…
Now the synchronous movement can be achieved by any of
the following methods:

 The film remains stationary while the x-ray tube and the
patient move.
 The x-ray tube remains Stationary while the film and the
patient move.
 The patient remains stationary while the x-ray tube and the
film move. This is the most accepted technique used.

7
 Terminology:
Before discussing blurring pattern and the concept of blurring,
we have to know some relevant terms,
these are:
– Tomographic angle
– Exposure angle
– fulcrum
– Pivot point
– Focal plane
– Section thickness

8
Tomographic Angle: -
It is the amplitude of tube travel
expressed in degrees.

Exposure Angle: -
It is the angle through which the
x-ray beam moves during the
exposure. The exposure angle and
tomographic angle are not always
equal to each other, mostly T. angle
is greater than the exposure angle
this is due to equipment
malfunction.

9
Section Thickness: - As we go apart from the focal plane
the sharpness of image is decreases so the range of thickness
that can be accepted by our eye is called the slice thickness.

Slice thickness inversely proportional to the tomographic angle

10
Pivot point/Fulcrum: -
The only point of the system that
remains stationary, we can also
assume the axis around which the
equipment move .

Focal Plane:-
The plane of maximal focus and
represent the axis about which the x-
ray tube and film rotate. 11
 Tomography Blurring:

• Objects above or below fulcrum

plane change position on film &
thus blur
A
A
C

A B C C B A
12
 Tomographic Blurring Principle

A'
B’
C’

Distance travel by Film =X. 13

 contd…
 A’ = distance travel by image A
 B’ = distance travel by image B
 C’ = distance travel by image C
 X = film travel distance
 Here A’>B’ = X<C’

 To blur any image there should relative movement b/w the

film and the object higher the relative motion more the blur.
 Hence the image of A is more blur than C and there is no
blurring of image B.

14
 contd…

Blurring depends upon:

 Amplitude of tube travel α width of blur
 Distance from focal plane α width of blur

 Distance from film α width of blur

 Orientation of tube travel α maximum blurring when
long axis of the part to be blurred is perpendicular to the
direction of tube travel.

15
 BLUR: Controlling Factors
1. Distance from objective plane:

16
2. Exposure Angle:
Increase in exposure angle,
increase in movement,
thinner focal plane and more blurring of above
and below structures.

17
3. Object Image Receptor Distance (OID):
Greater OID,
increased blurring

18
4. Tube Trajectory:
Maximum blurring occurs when object is perpendicular to tube
travel.

FIVE POSSIBLE TUBE TRAJECTORIES

19
Five Possible Tube Trajectories:

1. LINEAR

2. ELLIPTICAL 3. CIRCULAR

20
Five Possible Tube Trajectories: contd.

4. SPIRAL
21
Five Possible Tube Trajectories: contd.

5. HYPOCYCLOIDAL 22
Variable fulcrum: fulcrum level changes

Fixed fulcrum: table and patient move, changing fulcrum level.

23
 Image Quality Of Tomogram
 In terms of contrast and sharpness the quality of tomograph is not as
good as that of radiograph.
 CONTRAST :- Because of thin layer is being recorded, inherent
contrast is low, so the inherent contrast should high for tomographic
structure for better contrast. e.g.- if there is bone with adjacent air
cavity then the expectable contrast can be achieve by 1mm of
thickness.
 UNSHARPNESS:-
 Geometric unsharpness: Increases with increase with size of focal
spot and pivot to film distance. E.g.-in hypocycloidal movement
the PFD is large so more than 0.6 mm is not allowed .
 Movement unsharpness: Predominant in tomography due to
extended exposure time.
NOTE: During tomography, linear grids must be used and the grid
lines must be oriented in the same direction as the X-ray tube
movement that results no grid cut-off with better image quality.
24
 Magnification in Tomography
 There is some magnification of tomographic image, that can be
calculated by:

FFD
__________________________
M=
FOCUS-TO-PIVOT DISTANCE

 This can be summarized as follows:

1. Using fixed pivot equipment, all layers are recorded at the same
magnification.
2. Using a moving pivot system, magnification increases with increase in
pivot height.
3. In simultaneous multisection tomography the magnification is the
same for all layers taken with a single exposure.
25
 Phantom Image:

 Phantom is defined by Webster as

‘some thing that appears to the sight
but has no physical existence. It can
be formed by 2 different
mechanism.
 1st type of phantom image is
produce in narrow angle
tomography as shown in fig.
 It is produce by the blurred margins
of structures outside of the focal
plane, and they are most likely to
occur with circular tomography and
narrow angle tomography.
26
 contd…

 2nd type of phantom image is produce by the displacement of

the blurred image from an object outside the focal plane to
simulate a less dense structure.

 This type of phantom image most likely to occur when the

shape of the part being examined is similar to that of the x-ray
tube motion so it is common in skull tomography in circular
motion.

27
 contd….
The film shows the four image of same coin
A=simple radiograph
B,C,& D is the 3 circular tomogram of same coin at slightly different
distances from focal plane.
One edge of coin is marked by a line to identify the side.

•If the coin represent a densely calcified pulmonary granuloma ,then the
exactly doubled image would look like a larger, less dense soft tissue nodule
in image C and more than double image in fig. D. that mimic a thick wall
cavitary lesion . 28
 Types of Tomographic Movement:

The more a tomographic motion differs from the shape of the

object being examined, the shape of the object being examined,
the less likely to produce phantom image.
There are wide variety of tube motion.
These are:
– linear
– curvilinear
– circular
– elliptical
– figure of 8
– hypocycloidal
– spiral
29
 Linear Movement: The tube and image receptor is
synchronized to perform linear movement.

 Curvilinear: The tube and I.R. is synchronized to perform

movement in curve.

 Circular Movement: The movement in circular fashion.

 Figure of 8: The movement in figure of 8.

 Hypocycloidal & Spiral Movement: As shown in figure.

30
CIRCULAR HYPOCYCLOIDAL

SPIRAL CURVILINEAR
 Choice of Tomographic Movement:
TYPES OF MOVEMENT ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Pluridirectional: Maximum blurring of images Many cuts required to

Hypocycloidal of any shape of structure examine fully a thick region.
Spiral, Figure 8 outside the layer selected. e.g. 10 cuts per 1 cm
(large exposure angle only) Very thin layers (approx. 1 thickness. Long exposure
mm) allow small structures time (not less than 3
to be isolated. Used specially seconds) means that
in imaging of temporal bone. immobilization of the patient
is essential. The thin cut can
give images with less than
the required contrast.
Circular (variable exposure Good blurring of images of Can produce confusing
angle) most of the structures outside circular pseudo shadows as
the selected layer. Shorter well as double images of
exposure time and thicker linear structures just outside
layer available than with the the selected layer.
most complex movements.
used in imaging of pituitary
fossa ,and sternum.
32
 contd…
TYPES OF MOVEMENT ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Elliptical Very good blurring of Can produce double images

(variable exposure angle) structures outside the chosen of structures which are in
layers providing the major the line of the major axis
axis of the ellipse is at right and just outside of the layer
angles to the general lines of to be recorded.
the structure.

Linear Very short exposure time Linear streaking can obscure

(variable exposure angle) available. Wide range of information contained in the
exposure angles and image of selected layer. This
exposure time can be is a particular disadvantage
available. Used in imaging when small structures are
of lungs, larynx, and being examined using a
tracheal bifurcation. large exposure angle.

33
 Equipment for Tomography:

Tomography machines may be varied in appearance and function,

but all have some basic requirements in common.
They are:
1. a linkage mechanism.
2. a pivot unit.
3. a mechanical drive.
4. a drive control, usually a separate wall-mounted unit.
5. tomographic table.

34
 The Linkage Mechanism:

 It is long telescopic steel rod which couples together the x-ray

tube and the bucky carriage by means of clamps and locking
handles.

 In linking them the rod must allow the x-ray tube and the
bucky carriage to be further apart at the beginning and the end
of their excursions.

 To achieve this , the link rod may have a telescopic structure.

 The physical dimensions of the link prevent completely free

selection of the anode film distance.
35
 The Pivot Unit:

It is a turret-like structure and sometimes it is also called the

fulcrum tower.
Function of Pivot Unit:
a) A pivot for the opposite movements of the X-ray tube and the
Bucky tray;
b) A means to alter the height of the pivot point.
 It is fitted to the edge of the X-ray table which is nearer to the
tube stand and linkage arm.
 A scale mounted on an adjacent aspect of the tower is
calibrated in cm or inch and position of the pivot is shown on
the scale by means of a suitable indicator.
36
 contd…

 The fulcrum tower includes the switch assembly which effects

the X-ray exposure. During its excursion from one side of the
tower to the other linkage arm operates primarily two sets of
contacts, the first of these initiates the X-ray exposure and the
second terminates the exposure.

 The value of the exposure interval obtained is dependent upon

the period of time required by the linkage arm to travel
between these two stations and this in turn depends upon the
speed and angle of the tube movement.

37
 The Mechanical Drive:

 Travel of the X-ray tube during the exposure can be achieved

by a variety of means.

 It is an advantage of ceiling suspension that the topographic

drive is more direct and therefore more efficient when taken
from such suspension than from a floor mounting.

 It is customary for the speed of the motor to be variable by

means of a remote control unit.

 In some instances the exposure can be made during only one

direction of tube travel.
38
X-ray tube

Linkage mechanism

39
 The Drive Control:

The control unit for the tube drive often in a separate wall
mounted box.

This usually has switches which permit:

 selection of the tube’s speed of travel
 selection of the angle of exposure
 trial runs of the apparatus to be made without X-ray
exposure.

In some cases a warning lamp is included which indicates when

the equipment is energized.
40
 Tomographic Tables:

 Tomographic tables are those planned especially for

tomography, although they may allow general radiography to
be performed.

 Tomographic tables can be categorized in three general

groups.
They are:
 Group-I
 Group-II and
 Group-III

41
 Group-I
 Tomographic table in this group characteristically is a simple table
for radiography, having a floating top and the particular feature of
an integrated tube stand suitable for tomography.

 Many of the tables in this group provide only a linear tomographic

trajectory.

 A typical example of a tomographic table in this group possesses

the following attributes:
 Linear trajectory of the x-ray tube and the film .
 A choice of three angle of tube swing ,40º, 20º, 8º.
 A choice of two speed at each angle of exposure ,as follows
 40º at 1 s-3 s 20º with 0.5 s-1.5 s 80º with 2 s-0.6 s.

42
 Group-II

 Tomographic tables in this group differ from those in the I st

mainly in providing a circular or elliptical movement or both,
in addition to a linear trajectory.

 These tables may allow conventional ‘on-table’ radiography.

 Their characteristics, in respect of variable angles, variable

speeds and motorized adjustments of layer-height are similar
to the group first.

43
 Group-III

 Tomographic tables in this group are highly specialized.

 The range of tomographic movements offered by this group of

tables are:
 Linear , circular, elliptical or both
 Hypocycloidal, spiral or both.

 In addition to the provision of multidirectional excursions of

the X-ray tube, the table may have facilities
 To tilt or rotate the patient or both
 Television fluoroscopy.

44
 Peculiarities of Tomographic Table:

The tomographic table able to:

 To produce the different types of movement.
 There is control on speed of movement.
 Control on angle of exposure.
 Control on time of exposure.
 Adjust the fulcrum and the pivot point.

45
The Speed Of Movement And Length Of Trajectory

Effect on exposure time:

 The speed at which the tube moves during tomography
controls radiographic exposure time, the faster the tube
movement, the shorter is the interval of the exposure.

 Another factor in the time obtained is the angle of exposure,

i.e. the angle of swing through which the tube moves.

 When the tube describes a wide angle, exposure time will be

also longer than when the angle is small.
46
 Effect On Detail Perception

 In theory with a given selection of milliamperes, faster tube

travel should mean better visibility of detail ,this being more
readily perceived in sharp layer because the shadows of other
structures are underexposed to a greater degree when motion
is rapid.

47
 Various Types Of Tomography:

These are:
 Wide angle tomography
 Zonography {narrow angle tomography}
 Circular tomography
 Pantomography
 Multisection tomography
 Trans axial tomography
 Auto tomography

48
 Wide Angle Tomography:

 The purpose of wide angle tomography is to extend, the limits

of Roentgen visibility to enable us to see objects that are
completely obscured by overlying shadow in general
radiograph.

 In this the exposure angle is wide and hence the slice thickness
becomes thin.

 The sharpness of all images is decreased by wide-angle

techniques including those originating from the focal.

49
 contd…

 Most effective in studying tissues that have a great deal of

image contrast because with wide angle tomography we have
very thin section and no thickness difference b/w adjacent part
of the image, e.g. imaging of inner ear ossicles in which there
is enough contrast in very thin section.

50
 Zonography

 Also known as Narrow Angle Tomography.

 Zonography is not efficient with linear tomography it needs

multidirectional tube motion .

 Zonography is specially useful for when the tissues being

examined have little natural contrast.

 The lungs offers ideal medium for this techniques where

contrast is low and the interfering ribs are usually several
centimeters from our plane of interest.

51
 Equipment For Zonography

 High Frequency Generator

 500 mA/150kVp
 Automatic Exposure Control
(AEC – Optional)
 Anatomical Programs
(APR – Optional)
 40°, 30°, 20° and 8°
zonography
 Fulcrum-height varies from 0-
240mm with 1 mm increment.
　

52
 Equipment For Multidirectional Tomography

 High Frequency Generator

 500mA/150kVp
 Automatic Exposure Control
(AEC – Optional)
 Anatomical Programs
(APR – Optional)
 Exposure from knee to skull
(16.5 sec to 64 sec)
 + 135° to - 35° rotation

53
 Difference Between
Zonography & The Wide Angle Tomography
WIDE ANGLE TOMOGRAPHY NARROW-ANGLE TOMOGRAPHY
1. Tomographic arc of more than 10º 1. Tomographic arc are less than 10º
(usually 30º to 50º)
2. Less section thickness. 2. Greater section thickness.
3. Considerable unsharpness of focal 3. Very little unsharpness of focal plane
plane images. images.
4. Maximum blurring of objects outside 4. Minimum blurring of objects outside
focal plane. focal plane.
5. Best for tissue with high contrast. 5. Best for tissue with low contrast
(lung)
6. Can be done with either linear or 6. Usually done with circular
circular motion. tomographic motion.
7. Unlikely to cause phantom images. 7. Frequently causes phantom images.
8. Long exposure times. 8. Short exposure times (with properly
designed equipments) 54
PHANTOM HAVING
contd…
LEAD LETTERS

NARROW ANGLE
TOMOGRAPHY

WIDE ANGLE
TOMOGRAPHY

55
 Circular Tomography:

 The movement of the x-ray

tube, film and grid for
circular tomography is
shown in fig.

 As shown in fig. there is

movement of grid also a/c
to the movement of tube and
always parallel to the base
of image , if it is not than
there is great grid cutoff.

56
 X-RAY FOCUS PATH

FULCRUM

F
F F
F

57
Fig. CIRCULAR TOMOGRAPHY
Advantages:
 Can produce a uniform section thickness.
 With the circular tomography all portion of phantom image are
uniformly blurred ,no matter how they orientation in space
while as in linear motion only that image is being blurred that
is perpendicular to the tube movement.

Disadvantage:
 High cost
 Because of long exposure time the chest tomography is not
suitable.
 Sharp cutoff of the blur patterns, which is conducive to
phantom image formation.
58
 Difference b/w Circular Tomography & Linear
Tomography
Characters LINEAR CIRCULAR
TOMOGRAPHY TOMOGRAPHY

Equipment cost inexpensive. expensive

Section thickness depends upon independent of
orientation of body part. orientation.

Blurring Pattern tapered & indistinct. abrupt and sharply

defined.

Parasite strike outside the focal plane absent

Phantom images not produced likely to occur.
59
 Trans Axial Tomography:

 In this the plane of section runs through patient transversely.

 The X-ray film lies flat on a rotating horizontal table besides
the patient.
 Table is positioned, a little below the desired focal plane.
 The X-ray direct obliquely through patient fall on to the film.
 Tube remains stationary throughout the exposure.

 The patient and the film both rotate in the same direction and
at same velocity.
60
 contd…
 Only those points actually on the focal plane remain in short
focus throughout a rotation.
 Section thickness is determined by angle between X-ray tube
and film.
 More obliquely the central ray is directed towards the film,
thinner is the tomo section.
 All points are equally magnified and image is not distorted.
 A patient sits on a special rotating chair in an upright position
rotating table allows us to take image in coronal as well as in
sagital plane.
 When the patient is facing towards and opposite, there is
coronal cut.
 When patient turned sideways, there is sagital cut section.
61
Trans Axial Tomographic Equipment:

62
 Skip Tomography:
 It is a method that stops the exposure through a portion of tube’s
motion.

 Exposure skips during central portion of tomo when dense vertebral

structure are superimposed over point of interest.

 It is applicable to wide angle technique in which goal is to broaden

the limits of visualization.

 Usually 20º of time angle is skipped.

 Technique works when there is fairly large distances between object

if interest and object to be blurred. 63
 Auto Tomography:

 It is a technique designed to show midline structure of brain

stem, adequate or fourth ventricle.
 The X-ray tube and film both remain stationary while head is
rotated back and forth through an angle of approx 10º.
 The only structures that remain in focus are those located
along the axis of rotation. Other structures are blurred,
including dense portion of temporal bone which tends to
obscure delicate architecture of brainstem.
64
 Auto Tomography: Breathing Technique

Tube and IR stationary, objects move

65
 Pantomography:
 It is a special technique that produces a panoramic
roentgenogram of a curved surface.

 The patient remains stationary throughout examination.

 An X-ray tube and film holder both rotate during exposure.

 Film holder had protective pad and is considerably longer than

the film.

 Film is exposed through a narrow slit in its holder and moves

across it as tube rotates and image is laid out as film passes the
slit.
66
 contd…

 The resultant roentgenogram

is a flattened out image of
curved surface.
 The rounded configuration of
teeth and mandible are taken
and widely used in dentistry.
Pantomography of jaw show
TM joint on either side of film
and teeth laid out between
them.

67
68
Air shadows Soft tissue shadows
N= nasal cavity SP=soft palate
NP= nasopharynx T=dorsum of tongue
OP= oropharynx E= Epiglotis
GP= glossopharynx PP= posterior pharyngeal wall
E= external auditory canal
69
 Multisection Tomography:

 The principle is that several layers

of film are exposed simultaneously
during a single tomographic swing.
 In this technique, several layers of
the body section can be recorded
using one exposure.
 There is one mechanical fulcrum
for the top film and a virtual axis
for every other film.
 In this technique top and bottom
layers are equally magnified.
70
 Multisection Tomographic Cassette

 There is special type of

cassette used in multisection
tomography that can hold 3-
7 film with there respective
intensifying screens and
spacers.
 The spacer may be 5 to 10
mm in thickness and made of
radiolucent foam.
 The section thickness
depends upon the space b/w
the spacer.

71
 Multisection Tomography:

Advantages:
 A dose to the patient is reduced, since a number of separate
radiographs are obtained at the cost of a single exposure.
 Each of these radiographs is taken at exactly the same moment
in the respiratory or other physiological phase.
 It is the only way in which rapidly transient phenomena such
as vascular fillings in angiography- can be satisfactorily
tomographed.
Disadvantages:
 It has uncontrolled scatter radiation.
 Film quality is not so good.
72
 QA & QC of Tomographic Equipment:

 Tomographic equipment is carefully checked and calibrated by

the manufacturer’s service representative when it is installed.

 The tube film movement must be stable and exactly balanced

and there must be synchronization of the travel time and
exposure time at each of the exposure angles and tomographic
movements . These are checked with a pinhole test device.

 The pinhole test device is a lead plate with a very small

beveled hole in the middle, which is positioned on the table
top directly in line with the central tray.

73
 contd…

 Performance criteria and tolerance limits for tomographic

quality control tests vary somewhat with the type of
tomographic unit. The unit's performance at the time of
acceptance testing will set the baseline standard.
 For a typical tomographic unit, the following standards are
provided as a guide to evaluate acceptable performance:

74
 contd…
1. Fulcrum Height Accuracy: -
a. Section level:
The agreement expected between the indicated and
measured section levels varies somewhat, depending upon the
type of tomographic unit. In all cases, however, agreement to
within +/- 5 mm should be achieved. In measurements of this
characteristic the level setting should always be approached
from the same direction.

b. Level Incrementation:
In incrementing from one tomographic section to the next,
level position should be reproducible to within +/-2 mm. In
measurements of this characteristic, the level setting should
always be approached from the same direction.
75
 contd…
2. Thickness of Cut: -
a. Section Thickness:
This characteristic varies with the type of tomographic motion
and the exposure angle and uniformity. It is recommended that
tolerance limits be established for each particular unit from
images compared from one set of quality control measurements
to the next. In measurements of this characteristic, the level
setting should always be approached from the same direction.

b. Exposure Angle:
Indicated and measured exposure angles should agree to
within +/-5 degrees. For units employing symmetric motion at
wide angles, the symmetry of exposure angle should be within +/-
5 degrees with respect to the midline.
76
 contd…
3. Mechanical Stability
The density of the image pattern on the resultant film from
the pinhole test should be nearly uniform and straight. The
image should reveal no unexpected overlaps, inconsistencies
of exposure, or asymmetries in motion.
4. Spatial Resolution
Most tomographic units should depict a 40 mesh screen
pattern, ie. 40 holes per inch.
5. Patient Entrance Exposure
In making exposure measurements, care should be taken to
ensure that the dosimeter is positioned in the x-ray beam
during the entire exposure. Quantitative criteria are
unavailable for the values of PEE expected for tomography.
Facilities should set their own baseline standards. 77
PINHOLE TEST:
(Mechanical Stability and Tube Angle)
Equipment: -
 One rectangular sponge approximately 5 cm in height.
 One lead aperture plate, 4 x 4 x 1/8 inch with a 1/16 inch hole
in the centre.
 One 18 cm by 24 cm loaded cassette.
Procedure: -
 Position the cassette in the bucky.
 Place the lead aperture plate on top of the sponge and position
on tabletop. Using the x-ray tube centering device, centre the
x-ray tube over the plate. The hole in the lead aperture plate
must coincide with the central ray of the x-ray field. (See
Figure 8 - 1.)
78
 contd…

Collimate the x-ray beam to a 10 cm by 10 cm field size.

Select radiographic mode and expose the cassette using
approximately 50 kVp and 5 mAs. Do not remove the
cassette from the tray.
Select the most commonly used tomographic mode and
cut thickness.
Select a cut level of 12 cm.
Expose the cassette in tomographic mode for the second
time using approximately 50 kVp and 10 to 20 mAs.
Process the film.
79
 Information Collected from the Pinhole Test:

 Geometric representation of dots shows the pattern of motion

weather it linear or circular or any other motion.
 It shows us the symmetry of the exposure angle with a
properly functioning unit, the exposed dotted will be equal in
length on either side of center of tomographic arc.

80
We can find the true exposure angle as follows:

For example:
 a = 5cm &
 b = 5 cm.
Hence,

Tan θ=a/b
Tan θ=1

Tube angle= θ =45

81
 Radiation Protection:

 The technologist should have well concept of anatomical part

and so that he can take the image of that level in one shoot
without repeating the procedure.
 Wherever possible, the patient is positioned in such a way that
the structure of interest is parallel to the film, so reducing the
number of layer required for a complete record of structure.
 In skull tomography, the patient is positioned prone whenever
possible to reduce radiation dose to the eye lens.
 A small field size is essential not only for radiation protection
but also to improve radiographic contrast.

82
 Difference B/W Radiography And Tomography
Differentiating TOMOGRAPHY RADIOGRAPHY
Characteristic
Imaging of cross section layer plane
Blurring image need of tomography detoriates the image
quality
Movement synchronous no any movement
movement there
Equipment specialized to perform no such specification
specification movement
Radiation dose more less
Exposure time more less
Immobilization of long time Comparatively less
patient time
83
 Advancement in Tomography:

 On the basis of blurring principle of the conventional

tomography many of the newer developments comes in the
imaging world.

 Because of introduction of computer, newer imaging techniques

and the advanced software, newer development of tomography
occurs but the main principle of blurring is same.

84
 Computed Tomography:

 Among all the newer developments, computed

tomography is extensively performed in these days.

 With the advent of computer, it has brought a great

revolution in every fields. In radiology the conventional
tomography get replaced by computer aided tomography
called computed tomography.

 Computed tomography is the process of creating a cross-

sectional tomographic plane or slice of any part of body
in which computer is used to make a mathematical
reconstruction of a tomogram.
85
 Historical Aspects of CT:

 Computed tomography is the combined result of various

highly developed technologies.

 CT was the end product of years of work by numerous

scientists. Basis of CT were made by Austrian
mathematician J. Radon, according to which 2-
dimentional image would be reproduced from infinite set
of projections of an object, by getting this idea G.N.
Hounsfield along with Dr. Cormack made first prototype
model of CT in 1972 named EMI scanner and was placed
Atbinson morely hospital in England.

86
 Principle & Working of CT:

 The basic principle behind CT is that the internal structure of

an object can be reconstructed from the multiple projection of
that object.
WORKING:
 First the information is collected in raw form by means of X-
ray source and radiation detectors.
 These detectors do not form the image but information about
attenuation is fed into computer where image is processed by
several methods of mathematical reconstruction and displayed
as visual image on TV monitor.
87
 Advantage of CT over Conventional Tomography

 CT can resolve differences in tissue

density as low as 0.3% compared to
2% of conventional so it can
differentiate soft tissue like cyst,
blood clot, sinuses etc easily.
 Dose level are low to patient as due
to fine beam.
 2- or 3-dimentional image with axial
cuts are possible in CT only.
 Image manipulation can be done conventional
CT image
according to our choice so less risk of tomogram
incorrect exposure.
88
 Electron Beam CT

 An another advanced imaging modality that is based on the

principle of CT .

 It operates by means of a focused electron beam which is

magnetically directed at the speed of light across one to four
tungsten target rings, positioned beneath the patient. Each
target generates two beams of photons. Each 210 degree
"sweep" of the electron beam produces a continuous 30 degree
fan beam of x-rays that pass through the patient to a
semicircular (180) array of detectors. This information
generates the cross sectional images.

89
90
ELECTRON BEAM COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY SCAN

91
 Benefits
 Painless, safe, non-invasive
 Open, non-claustrophobic machine
 Considerably lower doses of radiation compared to traditional
scanning
 Produces images of the body at unprecedented speeds, 10
times faster than a conventional CT scanner
 Accurate high resolution, as detailed as 0.7mm
 It’s the only technology approved by the FDA for Calcium
Scoring due to image accuracy and sensitivity to Calcium. It’s
the only imaging technology which enables coronary Calcium
to be accurately measured and monitored by subsequent
EBCT scans to check if the treatment is working
 It’s the gold standard for quantification of coronary Calcium.
92
Modern Advancement in Tomography:

93
contd…

94
95
CONCLUSION

96
References:
www.wikipedia.com

Christensen’s Physics of Diagnostic Radiology

X-ray Equipments for Student Radiographers: Chesney

Clark’s Positioning in Radiography

97
THANK YOU

98
99
RAW MATERIAL

100