Cultivation of Rice in India

Prof. J.G.Varshney
H.O.D.
Department of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences

Introduction
Rice

is the worlds most important food crop and a primary

source of food for more than half of the worlds population.
More than 90% of the worlds rice is grown and consumed
in Asia where 60% of the earths people live.
Rice accounts for 35 to 75% of the calories consumed by
more than 3 billion Asians.
It is planted to about 154 million hectares annually or on
about 11% of the worlds cultivated land.

Feeding 5 Billion Rice Consumers in 2025

According

to various estimates, we will have to produce

40% more rice by 2030 to satisfy the growing demand
without affecting the resource base adversely.
This increased demand will have to be met from less land,
with less water, less labor and fewer chemicals. If we are not
able to produce more rice from the existing land resources,
land hungry farmers will destroy forests, and move into more
fragile lands such as; hillsides and wetlands with disastrous
consequences for biodiversity and watersheds.
To meet the challenge of producing more rice from suitable
lands we need the rice varieties with higher yield potential
and greater yield stability.

Classification of Rice
Oryza

sativa is a diploid species (24 chromosomes

3 broad sub species: indica; jaopnica, javanica
1. Indica
Rice grown in India belongs to indica sub species
Characterized by pubescent leaves and pale green in
color
Basically awnless but may have small and smooth awns
Fruit is caryopsis
(awn: A bristle like extension of varying length
originating from the lemma of the rice spikelet.
(Caryopsis : a dry fruit which does not opens at the time
of maturity)

contd.
2. Japonica:

3.

Varieties developed in Japan

Adopted for growing in subtropical , warm temperate zones
Oval and round grains
Leaves are narrow, dark green
Awn or awnless

Javanica:
Found mainly in Indonesia
Characterized by stiff straw, long panicle, sparse tillering habit.
Long duration and less sensitive to day length

Rice plant taxonomy

Member

of Gramineae family
Basically an annual plant grows to height of 1meter-2.5
meters even more
Plant system
Root system
coleorhizae- radicle- primary and secondary roots
Shoot system
Stem (culm)- nodes and internodes (stem is hollowexcept that of nodes
Coleoptile- primary shoot- primary tillers and
secondary tillers

 Leaves
Sessile leaves, borne at an angle, 1 at each node; with
leave blade attached to node by a leaf sheath
Panicle (i.e. Rice inflorescence)
It is a group of spikelets borne on uppermost node of
culm
Spikelet
Consists of two outer glumes - (florets - lemma +
Palea= hull), six stamens and pistil
Rice is a self pollinated crop

Rice Spikelet

Rice inflorescence

Rice Grain

Germination of seed and its parts

Season
Crop season

Local name

Sowing
time

Harvest
time

Kharif

Aus(W.B, Bihar)

May-June

Sept-Oct.

Rabi

Aman or Aghani

June-July

Nov-Dec.

Summer or
Spring

Dalua(Orissa),Boro Nov-Dec.
(W.B)

March-April

Method of Cultivation
The

following are the principal systems of rice cultivation;1. Dry or semi-dry upland cultivation
(a) Broadcasting the seed
(b) Sowing the seed behind the plough or drill
2. Wet or lowland cultivation
(a) Transplanting in puddle soils
(b) Broadcasting sprouted seeds in puddle soils

Nursery Raising and Transplanting

Select

a fertile well drained upland field near the source

of irrigation
500 sqm area for planting 1 ha area
750 1000 sqm for 1 ha in late sown conditions
Bold grain varieties- 40 to 45 kg seed to raise seedling
Fine grain varieties 30 to 35 kg/ha

Method of Sowing
Upland

Rice: - is rice grown on dry soil

Low Land Rice:- rice grown on land that is flooded or
irrigated
Direct Seeding/ sowing: 100-105 days duration seed to
seed
Direct seeded puddled fields: 115-125 days duration
Sowing in May to June- 130 to 135days seed to seed
gives highest yields
Early maturing varieties
100- 105 days duration

Soil
Wide

range of soils including alkaline and acidic soils.

Soils with good amount of clay and organic matter are best
suited.
Soil having good water retentions capacity with good
amount of clay and organic matter are ideal for rice
cultivation.
Clay or clay loams are most suited for rice cultivation it
grows well in soils having a pH between 5.5-6.5.

Seed rate
Broadcasting Use

about 100 kg seed/ha.

Sowing seed behind the plough or drilling.
Use about 60kg seed/ha. The row to row distance should
be 20cm.

Seed Treatment
Pyroquilon

(Fongorene 50 WP) or Tricyclazole (Beam 75

WP) @ 1g/kg/seed before sowing.
In pest endemic cases :
Phorate granules @ 1kg a.i./ha for protecting with the
young seed lings from gall midge and stem borer.
Alternatively, Monocrotophos 0.5 kg a.i/ha or Carbaryl
@0.75 kg a.i./ha to be sprayed after 10 days.

Fertilizer Application
Nitrogen

- 60 kg/ha.
Phosphorus - 30kg/ha.
Potash
- 30 kg/ha.
Total quantity of phosphorus and potash and 25% of the total nitrogen
should be applied in the soil at the time of land preparation.
After 35-40 days of sowing or at tillering stage, top dress 50 % of the
total nitrogen.
The remaining 25% nitrogen should be top dressed at panicle
initiation stage. The remaining 25% nitrogen should be top dressed at
panicle initiation stage.
Fertilizers containing nitrate are more susceptible to loss of nitrogen
through leaching and denitrification.
In paddy fields apply ammonium sulphate, ammonium chloride, urea
and DAP.
In zinc deficient soils 20-25Kg./ha should be applied at the time of
last puddling.

Wet or lowland cultivation

This

system of rice culture is practiced where there is an

assured and adequate supply of water.
Transplanting Method
Raising Seedling in Nursery- For transplanting one
hectare area about 500 square meter area is sufficient for
nursery raising.
In case of late sowing area of nursery should be
increased to 750-1000square meter.
In case of bold grain varieties, about 40-45 kg seed
would be required to raise seedling enough for one
hectare, whereas for fine grain varieties 30-35 kg seed is
enough.

Methods of Raising Seedlings

Wet Bed Method - Wet nurseries are preferred under

irrigated condition.
Dry Bed Method This method is practised in areas
where water is not sufficient to grow seedlings in wet
nurseries.
Dapog Method The main merit of this method is that
less area is needed to raise seedlings 25-30 square
metres of area is enough to raise seedling sufficient for
planting one hectare.

Transplanting
Transplanting

of healthy seedlings may be done at the 4-5

leaf stage or when they are about 15-20 cm high.
Transplant 2-3 seedlings per hill at 20X10 cm distance
under normal conditions.
Broadcasting Sprouted Seeds In Puddle Soils:- This
method is adopted in areas where there is shortage of
laboures or otherwise labour is very expensive for
transplanting. About 100 Kg. seed is required for one
hectare.

Water Management
The water requirement is high during the initial
seedling period covering about 10 days.
Tillering to flowering is the most critical stage when rice
crop should not be subjected to any moisture stress.
Ensure enough water from panicle initiation stage to
flowering.

Weed Control

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Reduces the yield from 20 to 40 percent

The most commonly found weeds in transplanted rice are
given below:Echinochloa colonum
Echinochloa crusgalli
Cyperus iria
Eclipta alba
Setaria glauca
Weeds should be removed once at 20 days after
transplanting (before first top dressing) and second time at
50-60 days after transplanting (before second top dressing)

Name of herbicide Dosage kg/ha

Time of
application

Butachlor

1.5

Within 5-6 days of

transplanting

Anilophos

0.4

Within 5-6 days of

transplanting

Pendimethalin

1.0

Within 1-2 days of

direct seeding of
paddy

Diseases
Name

Caused by

Symptom

control

Blast

Pyricularia
oryzae

Boat or eye shaped spots with grey or

dark brown margins on leaf. Time at
panical initiation

Grow resistant varieties

Seed treatment 10kg seed with 5 g
emisan+1g streptocyclin in 10 lit of water for
24 hrs

Brown Spot

Helmintosporium
oryzae

Affects the coleoptile of seeedling

Circular- oval dark brown to purplish
brown spots

Seed treatment as above

Treatment of postash deficient by adding
muriate of potash
3-4 sprays of 0.2%Mancozeb 75WP

Stem Rot

Leptospharia
salvinii

Black irregular lesions at waterline on

leaf sheath

Seed tratment
Avoid standing water in field for long

False smut

Claviceps oryzaesativae

Symptoms visible only after flowering

Infected kernel is transformed into
large velvety yellow to orange
pulverulent mass changing to olive
green color

Use of certified seeds of resitant variety

Spray with 0.2% copper oxychloride 50% at
panicle emergence stagge

Bacterial
leaf blight

Xanthomonas
oryzae

Blighting starts from tip tof leaf

towards downwards. Whole plant may
dry. Yellowish bacterial ooze may
appear

Use disease free certified seed

Drain standing water
Spray of Blitox 50 (3-4 times)

Tungro
virus

Tungro virus

Older leaves turn yellow orange from

tip and margins, becomes wavy and
intervienal chlorosis is observed

Vector to be controlled by spray of

phosphomedon 85sl @0.5 ml per liter of
water (5 sprays 10 days after sowing nursery
and 15 days after transplantion (30, 45, 60)

Khaira

Zn deficeincy

Mainly in nursery
Stunted growth
Brown spots are formed

3 sprays of mixture of 5 kg zinc sulphate and

2.5 kg lime in 1000 lit of whater per hactare
(10 days after sowing nursery. 20 days afyer
sowing and 15 days after transplanting

Insects
Name

Symptom

Control
(DATP= days after transplanting)

Stem borer

Dead heart
White head
Feeding larve within stem

3%carbofuran granules @30-33 kh per

hectare
20-25 days after transplanting and 50-60
DATP

Affects regular tillers and convert them

to tubular galls resembling leaf of onion
Affected tillers do not produce panicles
Sucking tyep insect

3%carbofuran granules @30-33 kh per

hectare
20-25 days after transplanting and 50-60
DATP

Scarps the upper surface of leaf

White streaks appear on leaf blade
parallel to midrib

Spray crop with phosphomidon85 sl @0.5ml

in one lt of water

Gall Midge

(onion leaf)

Rice Hispa

Lead roller

Caterpillars

Fold the leaf blades

Eats he epidermis of leaves

Spray Qunilphos25EC @2ml per one liter of

water

Gundhi bug

Bug creates
unpleasant smell
when touched

Suck the plant sap particularly the

milky juice of developing grains

5%malathion dust @20-25kg per ha

Mole
cricket

In nursery beds

Feeds on young roots

3%carbofuran granules @30-33 kh per

hectare

Green
hoppers

Sucking insects

Feed on upper leaves

Spray crop with phosphomidon85 sl @0.5ml

in one lt of water

Integrated pest management in rice

Optimum
Sowing
/ Planting
Time

Need based
insecticide use
Ecofriendly
and safe
insecticides

RESISTANT
VARIETY

Natural biocontrol
Avoid persistent
insecticides
Pheromones

Pest Monitoring
in Nursery/ Main
field
Economic
thresholds

Cultural Practices
Optimum Spacing
Optimum N
Crop sanitation
Alleyways
Mid season drying

Crop rotations

Harvesting and threshing

The

right stage for harvesting is when about 80%

panicles have about 80% ripened spikelets.
The grain will contain about 20% moisture.
The most common method of threshing are trampling by
bullocks, rubbing with bare human feed ( in hills) or
lifting the bundles and striking them on the raised
wooden platform.

Yield
A

well manage crop of mid-late duration (135-150 days)

paddy, yields about 60-70 quintals paddy per hectare.
Short duration varieties yield about 45-55 quintals of
paddy per hectare.
Hybrid rice yields, about 60-70 quintals of paddy per
hectare

Major problems in rice cultivation

About

78% of the farmers are small and marginal in the

country and they are poor in resource.
The problems of flash floods, water logging/ submergence
due to poor drainage are very common in East India.
Continuous use of traditional varieties due to the nonavailability of seeds and farmers lack of awareness about high
yielding varieties.
Low soil fertility due to soil erosion resulting in loss of plant
nutrients and moisture.

 Low

and imbalanced use of fertilizers, low use efficiency

of applied fertilizers particularly in the North-Eastern and
Eastern States.
The Eastern region experiences high rainfall and severe
flood almost every year which lead to heavy loss.
Heavy infestation of weeds and insects/pests.
Delay in monsoon onset often results in delayed and
prolong transplanting and sub-optimum plant population
(Mostly in rained lowlands).
In the years of scanty or adverse distribution of rainfall, the
crop fails owing to drought etc

Bringing Green Revolution in

Eastern India
Green Revolution in eastern India should be ushered in
based on the principles of sustainability, soil health and
environmental protection

Increasing the yields should not be the only criteria that

has derailed the sustainability of rice production system

Bringing green revolution to the east :

needs caution
Lessons learnt from green revolution in other parts of
the country., Punjab and Haryana
Over-emphasis on input intensive technologies
Excessive and imbalanced use of chemical fertilizers
leading to micro nutrient deficiencies
Neglecting the use of organics in rice cultivation
Excessive exploitation of ground water leading to soil
problems
Over dependent on chemical based pest control
leading to environmental pollution
Benefited only the medium and large farmers

Strategies for bringing green revolution in

Eastern India
Adoption of new high yielding varieties
Strengthening seed production and encouraging
seed replacement rate
Increasing area under hybrid rice
Encouraging balanced use of fertilizers (INM,
SSNM)
Enhanced use of organics
Adoption of IPM practices to control pests/diseases
Increasing irrigation facilities and judicious use of
water
Increasing area under boro rice wherever ground
water is abundant

Production constraints in Eastern India

Physical
Over

dependence on unpredictable monsoon

Frequent drought/floods
Low light intensity during kharif

Technical
Slow

spread of HYVs
Lower use of fertilizers/other inputs
Low seed replacement rate

Extension
Weak

extension machinery
Lower credit facilities

Adoption of High Yielding Varieties in

Eastern India
State

Assam
Bihar
Chhattisgar
h

No. of varieties available for

cultivation
IR

RSL

RUP

09
19
15

19
21
06

02
13
06

Bor Total
o
03
03
-

Jharkhand
12
16
04
Orissa
45
30
28
West
BengalRSL-Rainfed
23
10
06
IR-Irrigated;
shallow
lands; 01
RUPRainfed uplands;123
Total
102
59
07

33
56
27
32
103
40
291

States with Highest and Lowest

productivity of Rice
Highest Productivity
State

Lowest Productivity

Yield
State
(Kg/Ha)

Yield
(Kg/Ha)

Punjab

4019

Bihar

1237

Haryana

3361

Assam

1428

Andhra Pradesh

3344

Chhattisgarh

1446

Tamil Nadu

2817

Orissa

1694

West Bengal

2573

Uttar Pradesh

2063

National Average : 2202 kg/ha

Hybrid Rice
One of the key components
that can help in bringing green
revolution to Eastern India.
The potential is seen already as
the region is leading in hybrid
rice cultivation.

Hybrid Rice cultivation

About 55% area under hybrid rice in China
Several hybrids developed in India but area coverage is
insignificant

Drawbacks :
No yield advantage in high productivity areas
Narrow choice of hybrids to suit different regions/
States
Less acceptable grain and cooking quality
Procurement/ Marketing issues
Opportunity :
Ample potential to boost productivity in East Indian
States
States having productivity <2t/ ha

45

The Need for Hybrid Rice

Rapidly increasing population
Plateuing yield trend of HYVs.

Declining resources (Land, Water)

Yield advantage of hybrids (15-20%)
over varieties
Hybrid Rice is one of the practically
feasible
and
readily
adoptable
technologies to enhance productivity of
rice in the country.

Eastern India: Harbinger of hybrid rice

cultivation

Appreciable yield advantage of the hybrids over the

inbred varieties (30-40%)
Farmers enthusiasm in accepting the technology
Hybrid rice quality suiting to the requirement of the
people in the region
Aggressive marketing strategies by the private seed
companies

Evaluation of
Hybrids

Total hybrids evaluated : 2000

Hybrids Released : 43
Public Sector hybrids : 28
Private Sector hybrids : 15
Central Releases : 20
State Releases : 23

Hybrid rice cultivation (region-wise)

20013

Strategies for promoting Hybrid rice in

Eastern India
Policy
Providing a special fund for hybrid rice research with
special focus on Eastern India
Constituting a task force to oversee the progress on
hybrid rice
Creating conducive environment to boost seed
production both by public and private sector
Procurement of hybrid rice produce by FCI and other
agencies for PDS

Contd.

Technical
Development of long duration hybrids for shallow
low lands and coastal areas
Further enhancing the level of heterosis
Optimizing hybrid rice seed production in boro areas

Extensi
Conducting
on

large number of demonstrations in

farmers fields
Line Departments to play a key role in promoting
hybrid rice
Advance seed indent system to be developed and
implemented

Other technologies to usher into green

revolution in Eastern India
Adopting Integrated Nutrient Management practices
Going for soil health cards and practicing site specific
nutrient management
Use of organics/green manures should be an integral
part in rice cultivation
Use of Leaf Colour Chart to improve the N efficiency
Crop diversification (rotation and recycling of crop
residues)
Judicious use of water by adopting innovative
cultivation methods
Integrated pest management

Adoption of SRI to save water and other

inputs
Plant young seedlings (8-12

days old)
Single seedling per hill with
soil
Wider spacing (20 x 25 cm)
Use of more organics
Weeding by cono weeder
Bio-pesticides (IPM)

Need for SRI

Depletion of water resources

Stagnating rice productivity

Growing importance of organic agriculture
Increasing production costs
Need best utilization of family labour for
marginal farmers.

small and

54

Benefits of SRI
1. Higher yields of both grain and straw

2. Reduced duration of crop cycle (by 10-15 days)

3. Less chemical inputs
4. Less water requirement
5. Less chaffy grain (%)
6. Grain weight increased without change in grain size
7. Higher head rice recovery rate
8. Withstands cyclonic gales
9. Soil health improves through biological activity
55

SUGGESTIONS FOR SCALING UP

SRI METHOD
Supply of recommended chemical fertilizers on 50%
subsidy and vermicompost on 75% subsidy to SRI
farmers
Supply of knapsack hand compression sprayers on 75%
subsidy to SRI farmers
Organizing of field trips and exposure visits
Supply of green manure seeds on 75% subsidy
Supply of power tillers on 50% subsidy
Research on saving of water in SRI technology
Research on uptake of nutrients in SRI technology

56

Conventional
method

SRI method

25kg/acre

2kg/acre

5 cents/acre

1 cent/acre

Age of
seedlings
Spacing

30 days(5-6 leaves)

8-12 days(2 leaves)

15 cm x 10 cm

25 cm x 25 cm

Plants/hill

3-4

Hills/ sq.m

33

16

Manual/chemical

Mechanical

Continuous
inundation

Keep soil moist till

panicle initiation
stage

Seed rate
Nursery area

Weeding
Water
management

57

Aerobic rice cultivation

Cultivation of rice in un puddled, direct seeded
without standing water (need based irrigation as like
wheat & maize)
Combines features of high yielding irrigated lowland
and drought tolerant upland cultivars.
Promising varieties/hybrids suitable for aerobic
cultivation
Varieties

Rasi, Vandana, Jaya, PKM 3 , MAS-96

Hybrids

KRH-2, PA 6444, DRRH-3, PA 6201,

CORH-3, PHB-71 and Sahyadri

Direct seeding with 8 row drum seeder

Simple method to save labour
Sprouted seeds are sown
with the help of a 8 row
drum seeder
Duration reduced by 810 days
Yields on par with he
transplanted crop
Good leveling is a must

Specific constraints to Rice productivity in

different Regions/ Ecologies

Northern Region :
Low organic matter
Declining ground water levels
N, P, S, Fe, Mn, Zn deficiency
Imbalanced fertilizer use
Less than optimum plant population
Delayed planting due to labour shortage
Weeds and Pests
Eastern Region :
Wide spread P and Zn deficiency
Delayed / prolonged transplanting
Low/ imbalanced fertilizer use
Poor water management
Less adoption of new high yielding varieties
weeds and pests

60

Southern Region :
Less than optimum plant population
Salinity/ alkalinity
Delayed planting
Imbalanced fertilizer use
North East Hill Region :
Prevalence of shifting cultivation
Mostly native varieties cultivated
Poor coverage under HYV
Acidity, low P and Zn availability
Fe toxicity
Very low fertilizer use

61

Rain fed Uplands :

Low organic matter, N, P, Zn, Bo
Very low fertilizer use
Severe weed infestation
Moisture stress at critical stages
Inadequate supply and use of quality seeds
Wide spread poverty

Rain fed Lowlands :

Acid soils of low fertility, N, P, Zn, Mo deficiency
Saline soils deficient in N, P, and Zn in coastal areas
Low fertilizer use and poor use efficiency
Submergence in flood prone and waterlogged areas
Intermittent drought spells
Inadequate supply and use of quality seed
Wide spread poverty
62

Central Region :

High fixation of P and deficiency of N, Zn, Mo

Water logging at early stages and drought at grain

formation/ filling stages

Severe weed/ Pest infestation

Western Region :

Salinity and deficiency of N, Ca, S, Zn

poor quality ground water for irrigation

Low fertilizer use and poor use efficiency

Periods of moisture stress in rain fed and partially

irrigated areas
63

Projection of rice production (million tonnes)

2020-21

Conclusions
In Haryana and Punjab region water level is going down.
So, northern region will play role in second green
revolution in India.
Faster spread of newly developed varieties and hybrids
Efficient and effective seed production mechanism to
ensure the availability of quality seeds
Selective mechanization to save the rice farming from
labour shortage
Enhancing profitability of rice farming by economizing
the input use
Intensifying research on water saving technologies such as
Aerobic rice, AWD, SRI etc
Aggressive technology transfer efforts by all the
concerned