ASTRONOMICAL
OBSERATION
S
Celestial
Sphere
Celestial Sphere
For purposes of surveying, an assumption is
made that the stars and other heavenly
bodies are all fixed within a gigantic sphere
with an infinite radius whose center is the
earth called the celestial sphere.
The celestial sphere rotates from east to
west about a line which coincides with the
earths axis.
The speed of rotation of the celestial sphere
is 360 59.14 per 24 hours, thus making
slightly more than one revolution per day
An
observer is assumed to be at the
center of this sphere since the radius is
negligible in comparison to the distance
to the heavenly bodies within the sphere.
Vertical
angles measured to celestial
objects are practically the same whether
measured at the surface or at the center
of the earth.
Surveyors
and engineers are not
concerned with the distances between
celestial bodies. Their observations are
more on the determination of angular
relations which are measured on earth
between celestial bodies or some points on
earth and the celestial body being
observed.
Hence,
the assumption made is that the
universe is spherical in shape and that
celestial bodies are points on the celestial
sphere.
Definition of Terms
1.
Celestial Poles are the points on the surface of the
celestial sphere pierced by the extension of the earths
polar axis.
2.
Celestial Axis is the prolongation of the earths
polar axis
3.
Zenith is the point where the plumb line at the place
of observation projected above the horizon meets the
celestial sphere.
4.
Nadir is that point on the celestial sphere directly
beneath the observer, and directly opposite to the
zenith.
5.
Great Circle a great circle of a sphere is the trace on
its surface of the intersection of a plane passing
through the center of the sphere.
6.
Observers Horizon a great circle of the
celestial sphere where a plane, perpendicular to
the plumb line at the place of observation and
passing through the center of the earth, cuts the
celestial sphere. This circle is halfway between the
observers zenith and nadir and is the plane
azimuth is measured.
7.
Observers Vertical a vertical line at the
location of the observer which coincides with the
plumb line and is normal to the observers horizon.
8.
Celestial Equator a great circle which is
perpendicular to the polar axis of the celestial
sphere. It is an extension of the plane of the earths
equator outward until it intersects the celestial
sphere.
9.
Vertical Circle - a great circle passing through
the observers zenith and celestial body. Such a
circle is perpendicular to the horizon and
represents the line of intersection of a vertical
plane with the celestial sphere.
10. Hour
Circle a great circle joining the celestial
poles and passing through a celestial body and
whose plane is perpendicular to the plane of the
celestial equator.
11. Meridian
is the great circle of the celestial
sphere which passes through the celestial poles
and the observers zenith. This circle is both a
vertical and an hour circle.
Observation of Polaris
In surveying, the use of true or astronomical
directions has several advantages over the
use of assumed or magnetic directions. One
reason is that permanence is given to the
direction of boundaries of land as compared
to magnetic directions which are constantly
changing.
True directions may be obtained by sighting
on the sun or on one of several thousand
stars whose positions are known.
The sun and Polaris (the north star) are the
most useful celestial bodies for observations
made in the northern hemisphere.
In the southern hemisphere, the Southern
Cross is commonly used since there is no
bright star located near the south pole.
Polaris is a circumpolar star since it rotates
very close to the celestial north pole.
The star is of important significance to
engineers and surveyors since it is
commonly used to determine the true
direction of lines on the earths surface.
Relative position of Polaris with respect to the north celestial
pole
Polaris is a fairly bright star found about 1
from the north celestial pole. It is the last
star in the tail of the constellation Ursa Minor
(Little Bear) and is located in the sky by first
finding the Big Dipper in Ursa Major.
The two stars (Merak and Dubhe) of the
dipper farthest from the handle are the
Pointers, and Polaris is the nearest bright
star along the line through the Pointers.
It is also on the line through the
westernmost star of Cassiopeia and the end
star of the Big Dipper handle.
Apparent motion of Polaris
From these descriptions of the motions and
positions of Polaris it is apparent that, at the
moments of elongation, the stars motion
will be nearly vertical and its bearing will
change slightly with time.
For an accurate determination of the true
direction of a line, the most ideal time to
observe the star is when it is at or near one
of its elongations.
By sighting Polaris at UC or LC, all that needs
to be done is to depress the telescope and
set a point on the ground to define a true
north direction from the occupied position of
the observer to the point set on the ground.
The
disadvantage of taking sights on a
circumpolar star is that it moves quite
rapidly from west to east or east to west
at culmination and there is a need to
sight on the star at a very precise time.
An
appreciably large error in azimuth
occurs when a small error is made on the
correct time of culmination.
The
exact time of UC, WE, LC, and EE for
Polaris are provided in an Ephemeris.
Ephemeride
s
Ephemerides
Is an astronomical almanac containing tables
giving the computed position of the sun, the
planets, and various stars for every day of a
given period.
A variety of ephemerides are available
to surveyors for obtaining sun and star
positions. Some of the most useful ones
are:
1.
The Nautical Almanac, published by the
U.S. Naval Observatory, Washington, D.C.,
USA.
2.
The Ephemeris of the Sun. Polaris and other
Selected Stars, published by the U.S. Naval
Observatory, Washington, D.C., USA.
3.
Apparent places of fundamental Stars,
published
by
Astromisches
Reschen
Institute, Heildelberg, Germany.
4.
Solar Ephemeris, published by K & E, New
Jersey, USA
5.
Almanac for Geodetic Engineers, published
by Philippine Atmospheric, Geographical
and Astronomical Services Administration,
Manila, Philippines
Parallels and Meridian
Any
point on the surface of the Earth can
be systematically located by the use of
geographical or spherical coordinates.
This coordinate system is based upon two
sets of lines called the parallels and
meridians
1. Parallels
Are lines formed by passing
a series of imaginary planes
perpendicular to the axis of
the Earth.
Parallels are used to
express distances of points
above and below the
equator in degrees,
minutes, and seconds.
plane intersecting the
globe along a great circle
divides the globe into
equal halves and passes
through its center
One
such plane which
passes through the
center of the Earth and
halfway between the
poles forms on the
surface of a great circle
is called the equator
2. Meridians
Are formed by passing a
series of imaginary planes
through the Earths poles.
Meridians are numbered
from 0 to 180 eastward as
well as westward. The 0 to
180 meridians together
form a great circle through
the poles which divides the
Earth into two halves.
The
meridian which
passes through the
former site of the British
Royal Observatory near
Greenwich England is
designated as the 0
meridian
Longitudes
are generally
used in measuring
meridian distances. It is
expressed in either arc
or time measure.
The following tabulation should serve as
a useful summary of time and arc
relations
Celestial
Coordinate System
Celestial Coordinate System
Spherical coordinate system are used to define
the positions of heavenly bodies and points of
reference on the celestial sphere.
The location of a body is usually expressed in
terms of two perpendicular components of
curvilinear coordinates.
A primary reference circle is used for referencing
one component and the other is reckoned from a
secondary reference circle. The coordinates must
be referred to an origin somewhere on the
primary and secondary circles.
Different celestial coordinate system
are adopted and the most common
are:
1.
Horizon System
2.
Equatorial System
3.
Local Hour Angle System
1. HORIZON SYSTEM:
In
this coordinate system, the HORIZON is
the primary reference circle and the
secondaries are VERTICAL CIRCLES.
The
azimuth of a heavenly body is a
spherical angle and is defined as the
angular distance measured along the
horizon from the observers meridian to
the vertical circle through the body.
The
altitude of a heavenly body is the
angular distance above or below the
celestial horizon measured along the
vertical circle through the body.
2. EQUATORIAL SYSTEM:
The
primary great circle used is the
celestial equator and the secondaries are
those of hour circles. They all have same
secondary coordinate called the
declination.
The
declination of a heavenly is the
angular distance above or below the
celestial equator measured along the hour
circle through the body.
Within
the celestial sphere is an important
reference point called the vernal equinox.
Right
ascension is reckoned from the
vernal equinox and it is used with the
declination in defining the location of any
heavenly body within the celestial sphere.
The
earth as it travels around the sun in its
annual revolution defines the plane.
3. HOUR ANGLE SYSTEM:
The
primary reference circle in the hour
angle system is the celestial equator; the
hour circle through the observers zenith is
the secondary reference.
The
hour angle of any heavenly body is
defined as the angular distance measured
along the equator from the meridian of
reference to the hour circle through the body.
Time, Apparent Time,
and Sidereal Time
Definition of Time:
the
indefinite continued progress of
existence and events in the past, present,
and future regarded as a whole.
It
is also considered as a point of time as
measured in hours and minutes past
midnight or noon.
Different systems used in the
determination of time:
1.
Apparent Solar Time
2.
Sidereal Time
3.
Mean Solar Time
4.
Standard Time
Apparent Time
This
method of time determination is resolved
with respect to the apparent sun or the real sun.
This
method employs the operation of a sun
dial.
The
time required for an apparent revolution of
the earth around the sun is called as a solar day.
It
begins at when the true sun starts to appear
on the lower branch of the observers meridian.
It
is also referred to as sun time.
However,
the sun is not a good indicator
because the length of the apparent solar day
is not constant. Due to the following reasons:
The
non-constant velocity of the apparent
sun on the elliptical path as it moves across
the sky.
The
amount of time that light is required to
travel on varying points on the elliptical
orbit of the Earth.
Equinoxes
and Solstices
Sidereal Time
A
sidereal day at any place on the earths
surface begins when the vernal equinox is on
the observers meridian and above the horizon.
This
means that after 24 hours the vernal
equinox is again at meridian passage and 1
sidereal day passes.
It
is considered as a star time.
An
apparent solar day is 3 minutes and 56
seconds longer than a sidereal day which is 23
hours and 56.1 minutes
At
any point on the earths surface, the
sidereal time is equivalent to the hour
angle of the vernal equinox referred to
as the meridian of the place.
Sidereal
time is measured by special
clocks which are regulated so as to
gain 24 hours a year over ordinarily
used time pieces.
Difference in Solar Time and Sidereal Time
At time 1, the Sun and a certain
distant star are both overhead. At
time 2, the planet has rotated 360
and the distant star is overhead
again (12 = one sidereal day). But
it is not until a little later, at time 3,
that the Sun is overhead again (13
= one solar day). More simply, 1-2 is
a complete rotation of the Earth, but
because the revolution around the
Sun affects the angle at which the
Sun is seen from the Earth, 1-3 is
how long it takes noon to return.
Mean solar time,
Longitudinal and time,
Greenwich civil time
SOLAR TIME
is
a reckoning of the passage oftimebased
on thesun's position in thesky. The
fundamental unit of solar time is theday.
TYPES OF SOLAR TIME
Apparent
Mean
Solar Time (sundialtime)
Solar Time (clocktime)
MEAN SOLAR TIME
timebasedonthemotionofthemeansu
n.
MEAN SUN
A
fictitious body that has been devised
used as an accurate time indicator.
an
imaginary sun conceived as moving
through the sky throughout the year at
a constant speed equal to the mean
rate of the real sun, used in calculating
mean solar time
(animaginarysunmoving
uniformlyalongthecelestialequator).
CIVIL TIME
It
is measured by watches and clocks
and is the hour angle of the mean sun.
MEAN SOLAR DAY
Is
the time required for one revolution of
the mean sun.
Mean or civil day
Begins zero hours or midnight.
Mean noon
Instant of time when the mean sun is on the
observers meridian.
EQUATION OF TIME
Is used to make conversions from one kind
of time to other, and can be positive or
negative
LONGITUDE AND TIME
TheEarthwas
split into lines
oflatitudeand longitude in order to help
withnavigation. Longitude lines, or
meridians, circle the Earth from east to
west. The meridian that passes through
Greenwich, in London, is set at 0
longitude for historical reasons.
At
any instant, thedifference in local
timebetween two places, whether the
time under consideration is sidereal,
mean, or apparent solar, is equal to the
difference in longitude between the two
places expressed in hours.
GREENWICH CIVIL TIME
The PRIME MERIDIAN for figuring out longitudes
anywhere in the world passes through Greenwich,
England.
The standard time referred to greenwich meridian:
Greenwich Civil Time (GCT)
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)
Universal Time (UT)
Conversion to greenwich civil
time
To convert a moment of time, reckoned from
any meridian, to GCT, one hour is added for
every 15 degrees of west longitude and one
hour is subtracted for every 15 degrees of east
longitude.
Standard, Daylight
Saving and Local time
Standard Time
Standard
time is the mean time at meridians 15 or 1 hour
apart, measured either eastward or westward from the
greenwich meridian. The adoption of standard time as a
system of time measurement was merely a convenience.
Some
countries have different time belts such as the united
states which is divided into four zones, or sections of
standard time. The reference meridian for its zones are,
respectively, in the following longitudes west of greenwich:
75, 90, 105, and 120. Each of theses meridians passes
through the center of a zone of standard time.
Daylight Saving Time
Daylight saving time (DST) in any zone in
the western hemisphere is equal to Standard
time in the zone just to east of it. In the
eastern hemisphere it is equal to standard
time in the zone just to the west. Thus,
daylight saving time is always one hour
ahead of standard time. It is usually adopted
in different countries during the summer
months.
The
daylight saving time movement was
originated in England by William Willet in
1907 by the publication of a booklet
entitled The Waste of Daylight. Willets
scheme aimed at securing more daylight
leisure for recreation and lessening the
work performed by artificial light during the
summer months. It simply meant that
during the summer months people should
rise an hour earlier than usual in the
morning, begin work an hour earlier and
finish an hour earlier in the afternoon or
evening.
Local Time
It
is often necessary to convert standard time
into local time or local time into standard time.
Local time is the time based on the observers
meridian. When the standard time is known,
the local time at any other place within the
same time belt can easily be determined if the
longitude of the place is known. When the
longitude is given in an arc measure, it must
first be converted into its equivalent time
measure.
Illustrative Problems
Converting arc measure to time measure
Change an arc measure of 85 44 36 to time measure by the use of the
arc and time conversion table.
Solution:
85 = 5h 40m 00.0s (equivalent value taken from the conversion table)
44 =
02m 56.0s (equivalent value taken from the conversion table)
36/15=
02.4s
(determined by dividing by15)
5h 42m 58.4s
Therefore:
an arc measure of 85 44 36 is equal to a time of 5 h 42m 58.4s
Converting arc measure to time measure
Change a time measure of 8h 40m 55s to its equivalent arc measure by
the use of the arc and time conversion table.
Solution:
85h 40m = 130 00 00 (equivalent value taken from the conversion table)
52s =
13 00
3s x 15 =
45
(equivalent value taken from the conversion table)
(determined by multiplying by15)
130 13 45
Therefore:
a time measure of 8h 40m 55s is equal to an arc measure of
130 13 45
Longitude and time
The longitude of Washington is 77 04 00 West and that of San
Francisco is 122 25 45 West. Determine the following:
a.
Difference in solar time between Washington and San
Francisco.
b.
Time in Washington when it is 9: 03: 00 AM (9 h 03m 00s) at San
Francisco.
c.
Time at San Francisco when it is 7: 54: 30 PM (19 h 54m 30s) at
Washington.
SOLUTION:
Diff = Longitude of San Francisco Longitude of Washington
= +12225 45 (+77 0400)
= 45 21 45 arc measure or 3h 01m 27s time measure
Tw = TSF Diff = 9h 03m 00s + 3h 01m 27s
= 12h 04m 27s or 04m 27s
= 0: 04: 27 PM
TSF = Tw Diff =19h 54m 30s - 3h 01m 27s
= 16h 53m 03s or
= 4: 53: 03 PM
Determining greenwich civil time
What is the greenwich civil time (GCT) when at a
given instant the standard or mean time at:
A.
120 east longitude is 4: 45 PM?
B.
120 east longitude is 9: 30 AM?
C.
90 west longitude is 3: 15 AM?
D.
75 west longitude is 4: 45 PM?
E.
150 west longitude is 10:05 PM?
SOLUTION:
tm = 4: 45 PM or 1645 H
a.
= 16h 45m or 16.75h (Mean or standard time at 120E
longitude)
TZC = 120 ()
= 8h (Time Zone Correction is based on the relationship that
15=1h)
GCT = tm TZC = 16.45h 8h
= 8.75h or 8:45 AM (Equivalent Greenwich Civil Time on the same
day)
Tm = 9: 30 AM or 0930 H
b.
= 9h 30m or 9.50h (mean or standard time at 120E longitude)
Tzc = 120 ()
= 8h (time zone correction is based on the relationship that 15=1h)
GCT = tm TZC = 9.50h 8h
= 1.50h or 1:30 AM (equivalent greenwich civil time on the same
day)
Tm = 3: 15 am or 0315 h
c.
= 3h 15m or 3.25h (mean or standard time at 90W longitude)
TZC = 90 () = 6h (time zone correction is based on the relationship that
15=1h)
GCT = tm TZC = 3.25h + 6h
= 9.25h or 9:15 AM (equivalent greenwich civil time on the same
day)
Tm = 4: 45 PM or 1645 H
d.
= 16h 45m or 16.75h (mean or standard time at 150 W longitude)
TZC = 75 () = 5h (time zone correction is based on the relationship that 15=1h)
GCT = tm TZC = 16.45h + 5h
= 21.75h or 9:45 PM (equivalent greenwich civil time on the same
day)
Tm = 10: 05 PM or 2205 H
e.
= 22h 05m or 22.083h (mean or standard time at 75 W longitude)
TZC = 150 () = 10h (time zone correction is based on the relationship that
15=1h)
GCT = tm TZC = 22.083h + 10h
= 32.083h or 8.083h (adjusted equivalent greenwich civil time on the next
day)
Standard time and local
time
At a place (A) whose longitude is 8137 west, the standard time is
9: 37: 45 AM (9h 37m 45s). Determine the local time of the place at that
instant.
Solution:
A. Diff = longitude of A longitude of standard time meridian
= +8137 (+75)
= 6 37 arc measure or 0h 26m 28s time measure
B. Local time = standard time at 75W diff
= 9h 37m 45s - 0h 26m 28s
= 9h 11m 17s or 9: 11: 17 AM
(local time at A when the standard time at 75 is 9: 37: 45 AM)
PREPARED
BY
GROUP
3
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