Topic 2: Mechanics

2.1 Motion
Essential idea: Motion may be described and analysed
by the use of graphs and equations.
Nature of science: Observations: The ideas of motion
are fundamental to many areas of physics, providing
a link to the consideration of forces and their
implication. The kinematic equations for uniform
acceleration were developed through careful
observations of the natural world.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Understandings:
Distance and displacement
Speed and velocity
Acceleration
Graphs describing motion
Equations of motion for uniform acceleration
Projectile motion
Fluid resistance and terminal speed

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Applications and skills:
Determining instantaneous and average values for
velocity, speed and acceleration
Solving problems using equations of motion for
uniform acceleration
Sketching and interpreting motion graphs
Determining the acceleration of free-fall experimentally
Analysing projectile motion, including the resolution of
vertical and horizontal components of acceleration,
velocity and displacement
Qualitatively describing the effect of fluid resistance on
falling objects or projectiles, including reaching
terminal speed

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Guidance:
Calculations will be restricted to those neglecting air
resistance
Projectile motion will only involve problems using a
constant value of g close to the surface of the Earth
The equation of the path of a projectile will not be
required
Data booklet reference:
v = u + at
s = ut + (1/2)at2
v2 = u2 + 2as
s = (1/2)(v + u) / t

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
International-mindedness:
International cooperation is needed for tracking
shipping, land-based transport, aircraft and objects
in space
Theory of knowledge:
The independence of horizontal and vertical motion in
projectile motion seems to be counter-intuitive. How
do scientists work around their intuitions? How do
scientists make use of their intuitions?

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Utilization:
Diving, parachuting and similar activities where fluid
resistance affects motion
The accurate use of ballistics requires careful analysis
Biomechanics (see Sports, exercise and health
science SL sub-topic 4.3)
Quadratic functions (see Mathematics HL sub-topic
2.6; Mathematics SL sub-topic 2.4; Mathematical
studies SL sub-topic 6.3)
The kinematic equations are treated in calculus form in
Mathematics HL sub-topic 6.6 and Mathematics SL
sub-topic 6.6

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Aims:
Aim 2: much of the development of classical physics
has been built on the advances in kinematics
Aim 6: experiments, including use of data logging,
could include (but are not limited to): determination
of g, estimating speed using travel timetables,
analysing projectile motion, and investigating motion
through a fluid
Aim 7: technology has allowed for more accurate and
precise measurements of motion, including video
analysis of real-life projectiles and
modelling/simulations of terminal velocity

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Distance and displacement
Mechanics is the branch of physics which concerns
itself with forces, and how they affect a body's motion.
Kinematics is the sub-branch of mechanics which
studies only a body's motion without regard to causes.
Dynamics is the sub-branch of mechanics which
studies the forces which cause a body's motion.
The two pillars of
mechanics
Galileo
Kinematics

Newton
Dynamics
(Calculus)

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Distance and displacement
Kinematics is the study of displacement, velocity and
acceleration, or in short, a study of motion.
A study of motion begins with position and change in
position.
Consider Freddie the Fly, and his quest for food:
t
a
l
o
oc
h
c
d
e
lt
e
M

hip
c
e

d=6m
The distance Freddie travels is simply how far he has
flown, without regard to direction. Freddie's distance is
6 meters.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Distance and displacement
Distance is simply how far something has traveled
without regard to direction. Freddy has gone 6 m.
Displacement, on the other hand, is not only distance
traveled, but also direction.
Distance = 6 m
Displacement = 6 m
in the positive x-direction
This makes displacement a vector. It has a magnitude
(6 m) and a direction (+ x-direction).
We say Freddie travels through a displacement of 6 m
in the positive x-direction.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Distance and displacement
Lets revisit some previous examples of a ball moving
through some displacements
Displacement A
x(m)
Displacement B
x(m)
Displacement A is just 15 m to the right (or +15 m for
short).
Vector
Displacement B is just 20 m to the left (or -20 m for
short).
FYI
Scalar
Distance A is 15 m, and Distance B is 20 m. There is
no regard for direction in distance.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Distance and displacement
Now for some detailed analysis of these two motions
Displacement A
x(m)
Displacement B
x(m)
Displacement x (or s) has the following formulas:
x = x2 x1
s = x2 x1

displacement
where x2 is the final position
and x1 is the initial position

FYI
Many textbooks use x for displacement, and IB uses
s. Dont confuse the change in with the uncertainty
symbol. And dont confuse s with seconds!

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Distance and displacement
displacement
where x2 is the final position
and x1 is the initial position

x = x2 x1
s = x2 x1

EXAMPLE: Use the displacement formula to find each

displacement. Note that the x = 0 coordinate has been
2
placed on the number lines. 1
Displacement A

2
Displacement B

x(m)

SOLUTION:
For A: s = (+10) (-5) = +15 m. FYI
For B: s = (-10) (+10) = -20 m. The correct direction
(sign) is automatic!

x(m)

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Speed and velocity
Velocity v is a measure of how fast an object moves
through a displacement.
Thus, velocity is displacement divided by time, and is
measured in meters per second (m s-1).
velocity
v = x / t
v=s/t
EXAMPLE: Find the velocity of the second ball (Ball B)
if it takes 4 seconds to complete its displacement.
SOLUTION:
For B: s = (-10) (+10) = -20 m.
But t = 4 s. Therefore v = -20 m / 4 s = -5 m s-1.
Note that v inherits its direction from s.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Speed and velocity
From the previous example we calculated the velocity
of the ball to be -5 m s-1.
Thus, the ball is moving 5 m s-1 to the left.
With disregard to the direction, we can say that the
balls speed is 5 m s-1.
We define speed as distance divided by time, with
disregard to direction.
PRACTICE: A runner travels 64.5 meters in the negative
x-direction in 31.75 seconds. Find her velocity, and her
speed.
SOLUTION: Her velocity is -64.5 / 31.75 = - 2.03 m s-1.
Her speed is 64.5 / 31.75 = 2.03 m s-1.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Acceleration
Acceleration is the change in velocity over time.
a = v / t
a = (v u) / t

acceleration
where v is the final velocity
and u is the initial velocity

Since u and v are measured in m/s and since t is

measured in s, a is measured in m/s2, or in IB format, a
is measured in m s-2.
FYI
Many textbooks use v = vf - vi for change in velocity,
vf for final velocity and vi initial velocity. IB gets away
from the subscripting mess by choosing v for final

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Acceleration
a = v / t
a = (v u) / t

acceleration
where v is the final velocity
and u is the initial velocity

EXAMPLE: A driver sees his speed is 5.0 m s-1. He then

simultaneously accelerates and starts a stopwatch. At
the end of 10. s he observes his speed to be 35 m s-1.
What is his acceleration?
SOLUTION: Label each number with a letter:
v = 35 m s-1, u = 5.0 m s-1, and t = 10. s.
Next, choose the formula: a = (v u) / t.
Now substitute and calculate:
-2

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Acceleration
a = v / t
a = (v u) / t

acceleration
where v is the final velocity
and u is the initial velocity

PRACTICE:
(a) Why is velocity a vector?
(b) Why is acceleration a vector?
SOLUTION:
(c) Velocity is a displacement over time. Since
displacement is a vector, so is velocity.
(d) Acceleration is a change in velocity over time.
Since velocity is a vector, so is acceleration.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Solving problems using equations of motion for uniform
acceleration
Back in the 1950s, military aeronautical engineers
thought that humans could not withstand much of an
acceleration, and therefore put little effort into pilot
safety belts and ejection seats.
An Air Force physician by the name of Colonel Stapp,
however, thought humans could withstand higher
accelerations.
He designed a rocket sled to accelerate at up to 40g
(at which acceleration you would feel like you weighed
40 times your normal weight!).

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Solving problems using equations of motion for uniform
acceleration
The human to be tested would be Stapp himself.
An accelerometer and a video camera were attached
to the sled. Here are the results:

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Solving problems using equations of motion for uniform
acceleration
Here are the data.
In 1954, America's original Rocketman, Col. John Paul
Stapp, attained a then-world record land speed of 632
mph, going from a standstill to a speed faster than a .45
bullet in 5.0 seconds on an especially-designed rocket
sled, and then screeched to a dead stop in 1.4
seconds, sustaining more than 40g's of force, all in the
interest of safety.
There are TWO accelerations in this problem:
(a) He speeds up from 0 to 632 mph in 5.0 s.
(b) He slows down from 632 mph to 0 in 1.4 s.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Solving problems using equations of motion for uniform
acceleration
There are TWO accelerations in this problem:
(a) He speeds up from 0 to 632 mph in 5.0 s.
(b) He slows down from 632 mph to 0 in 1.4 s.
EXAMPLE: Convert 632 mph to m/s.
SOLUTION: Use well-chosen ones
632 mi 5280 ft 1 m 1 h
= 280 m
3.28 ft 3600. s
s
1h
1 mi
EXAMPLE: Was Stapp more uncomfortable while he
was speeding up, or while he was slowing down?
SOLUTION: While slowing down. Why?

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Solving problems using equations of motion for uniform
acceleration
There are TWO accelerations in this problem:
(a) He speeds up from 0 to 632 mph in 5.0 s.
(b) He slows down from 632 mph to 0 in 1.4 s.
EXAMPLE: Find Stapps acceleration during the
speeding up phase.
SOLUTION:
v
= v f - v i = 280 m/s - 0 m/s = 60 m/s2
a=
t
5s
t
EXAMPLE: Find Stapps acceleration during the slowing
down phase.
a = v - u = 0 m/s - 280 m/s = - 200 m s-2
1.4 s
t

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Determining instantaneous and average values for
velocity, speed and acceleration
Consider a car whose position is changing.
A patrol officer is checking its speed with a radar gun
as shown.
The radar gun measures the position of the car during
each successive snapshot, shown in yellow.
How can you tell that the car is speeding up?
What are you assuming about the radar gun time?

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Determining instantaneous and average values for
velocity, speed and acceleration
We can label each position with an x and the time
interval between each x with a t.
Then vA = (x2 - x1)/t, vB = (x3 - x2)/t, and finally
vC = (x4 - x3)/t.
Focus on the interval from x2 to x3.
Note that the speed changed from x2 to x3, and so vB is
NOT really the speed for that whole interval.
We say the vB is an average
(as
vspeed
vA
vC are vA and vC).
B
t
x1 x2

t
x3

t
x4

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Determining instantaneous and average values for
velocity, speed and acceleration
If we increase the sample rate of the radar gun (make
the t smaller) the positions will get closer together.
Thus the velocity calculation is more exact.
We call the limit as t approaches zero in the equation
v = x / t the instantaneous velocity.
For this level of physics we will just be content with the
average velocity. Limits are beyond the scope of this
course. You can use the Wiki extensions to explore
limits, and derivatives, if interested.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Determining instantaneous and average values for
velocity, speed and acceleration
By the same reasoning, if t gets smaller in the
acceleration equation, our acceleration calculation
becomes more precise.
We call the limit as t approaches zero of the equation
a = v / t the instantaneous acceleration.
For this level of physics we will be content with the
average acceleration. See the Wiki for extensions if you
are interested!

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Equations of motion for uniform acceleration
The equations for uniformly accelerated motion are
also known as the kinematic equations. They are
listed here
s = ut + (1/2)at 2
Displacement
v = u + at
Velocity
v2 = u2 + 2as
Timeless
s = (u + v)t / 2
Average displacement
They can only be used if the acceleration a is
CONSTANT (uniform).
They are used so commonly throughout the physics
course that we will name them.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Equations of motion for uniform acceleration
From a = (v u)/t we get
at = v u.
Rearrangement leads to v = u + at, the velocity
equation.
Now, if it is the case that the acceleration is constant,
then the average velocity can be found by taking the
sum of the initial and final velocities and dividing by 2
(just like test grades). Thus
average velocity = (u + v) / 2.
But the displacement is the average velocity times the
time, so that s = (u + v)t / 2, the average displacement
equation.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Equations of motion for uniform acceleration
We have derived v = u + at and s = (u + v)t / 2.
Lets tackle the first of the two harder ones.
s = (u + v)t / 2
Given
s = (u + u + at)t / 2
v = u + at
s = (2u + at)t / 2
Like terms
s = 2ut/2 + at 2/ 2
Distribute t/2
s = ut + (1/2)at 2
Cancel 2
which is the displacement equation.
Since the equation s = (u + v)t/2 only works if the
acceleration is constant, s = ut + (1/2)at 2 also works
only if the acceleration is constant.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Equations of motion for uniform acceleration
We now have derived v = u + at, s = (u + v)t / 2 and
s = ut + (1/2)at 2. Lets tackle the timeless equation.
From v = u + at we can isolate the t.
v u = at
t = (v u)/a
From s = (u + v)t / 2 we get:
2s = (u + v)t
Multiply by 2
2s = (u + v)(v u) / a
t = (v - u)/a
2as = (u + v)(v u)
Multiply by a
2as = uv u2 + v2 vu
FOIL
v2 = u2 + 2as
Cancel (uv = vu)

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Equations of motion for uniform acceleration
Just in case you havent written these down, here they
are again.
s = ut + (1/2)at2
v = u + at
v2 = u2 + 2as
s = (u + v)t/2

kinematic
Displacement
equations
Velocity
a is constant
Timeless
Average displacement

We will practice using these equations soon. They are

extremely important.
Before we do, though, we want to talk about freefall
and its special acceleration g.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Determining the acceleration of free-fall
experimentally
Everyone knows that when you drop an
object, it picks up speed when it falls.
Galileo did his famous freefall
experiments on the tower of Pisa long ago,
and determined that all objects fall at the
same acceleration in the absence of air
resistance.
Thus, as the next slide will show, an apple
and a feather will fall side by side!

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Determining the
acceleration of free-fall
experimentally
Consider the multiflash
image of an apple and a
feather falling in a partial
vacuum:
If we choose a convenient
spot on the apple, and mark
its position, we get a series
of marks like so:

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Determining the
acceleration of free-fall
experimentally
Now we SCALE our data.
Given that the apple is 8 cm
in horizontal diameter we
can superimpose this scale
on our photograph.
Then we can estimate the
position in cm of each
image.

0 cm
-9 cm
-22 cm

-37 cm

-55 cm

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Determining the
acceleration of free-fall
experimentally
Suppose we know that the
time between images is
0.056 s.
We make a table starting
with the raw data columns
of t and y.
We then make
calculations columns in t,
y and v.

0 cm
-9 cm

t(s) y(cm)
.000

-22 cm
y

-37-9
cm TWO
-161
.056
-9you .056
FYI:
To find t
need to subtract
t's.
Therefore
first
entry
for
t is
FYI:
Tofind
find
vtthe
you
need
totodivide
y TWO
by
.112
-22
.056
-13
-232
To
y
you
need
subtract
BLANK.
t.
By
CURRENT
y
y's.
Byconvention,
convention,
CURRENT
MINUS
t's.
By
convention,
CURRENT
tyMINUS
.168
-37
.056
-15
-268
DIVIDED
BY
CURRENT
t.
FYI:
Same thing
PREVIOUS
y.
t. for the first y.
.224
-55
.056
-18
-321
-55
FYI: Since v = y / t, the first
vcm
entry is
also BLANK.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion

VELOCITY / cm sec-1

Determining the
acceleration of
free-fall
experimentally
Now we plot v
v
vs. t on a
graph.
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
-300

.000

t(s) y(cm)

.000

.056

-9

.056

-9

-161

.112

-22

.056

-13

-232

.168

-37

.056

-15

-268

.224

-55

.056

-18

-321

.056

TIME / sec
.112

.168

.224

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Determining the
acceleration of
free-fall
experimentally

VELOCITY (cm/sec)

0
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
-300

.000

FYI
The graph v vs. t is linear. Thus a is
constant.
The y-intercept (the initial velocity of
the apple) is not zero. But this just
means we dont have all of the
images TIME
of the
apple.
(sec)
.056

.112

.168

.224

t/s

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion

VELOCITY (cm/sec)

0
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
-300

.000

FYI
Finally, the acceleration is the slope
of the v vs. t graph:
a = v = -220 cm/s = -982 cm/s2
0.224 s
t
.056

TIME (sec)
.112

t = 0.224 s

.168

.224

t/s

v = -220 cm/s

Determining the
acceleration of
free-fall
experimentally

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Determining the acceleration of free-fall experimentally
Since this acceleration due to gravity is so important
we give it the name g.
ALL objects accelerate at -g , where
g = 980 cm s-2
in the absence of air resistance.
We can list the values for g in three ways:
g = 980 cm s-2
g = 9.80 m s-2
g = 32 ft s-2

We usually round
the metric value to
10:
g = 10. m s-2

Hammer and feather drop Apollo 15

magnitude of
the freefall
acceleration

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Solving problems using equations of motion for uniform
acceleration
-General:
s = ut + (1/2)at2, and
v = u + at, and
v2 = u2 + 2as, and
s = (u + v)t / 2;
-Freefall: Substitute -g for a in all of the above
equations.
FYI
The kinematic equations will be used throughout the
year. We must master them NOW!

v=u

s = ut +
+ at

1
at
2

as
2
+
v2 = u
2

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Solving problems using equations of motion for uniform
acceleration
EXAMPLE: How far will Pinky and the Brain go in 30.0
seconds if their acceleration is 20.0 m s -2?
KNOWN
FORMULAS
1
a = 20 m/s2 Given
s = ut + 2at2
t = 30 s
Given
v = u + at
Implicit
u = 0 m/s
v2 = u2 + 2as
s=?
WANTED
t is known - drop the
timeless eqn.
Since v is not wanted,
drop the velocity eq'n:

SOLUTION
1
s = ut + 2at2
1
s = 0(30) + 2 20(30)2
s = 9000 m

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Solving problems using equations of motion for uniform
acceleration
EXAMPLE: How fast will Pinky and the Brain be going
at this instant?
KNOWN
a = 20 m/s2 Given
Given
t = 30 s
Implicit
u = 0 m/s

FORMULAS
s = ut + 12at2
v = u + at
v2 = u2 + 2as

v=?
WANTED
t is known - drop the
timeless eqn.
Since v is wanted, drop
the displacement eq'n:

SOLUTION
v = u + at
v = 0 + 20(30)
v = 600 m s-1

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Solving problems using equations of motion for uniform
acceleration
EXAMPLE: How fast will Pinky and the Brain be going
when they have traveled a total of 18000 m?
KNOWN
a = 20 m/s2 Given
s = 18000 m Given
Implicit
u = 0 m/s
v=?
WANTED
Since t is not known drop the two eqns which
have time in them.

FORMULAS
s = ut + 12at2
v = u + at
v2 = u2 + 2as
SOLUTION
v2 = u2 + 2as
v2 = 02 + 2(20)(18000)
v = 850 m s-1

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Solving problems using equations of motion
for uniform acceleration
EXAMPLE: A ball is dropped off of the
Empire State Building (381 m tall). How fast
is it going when it hits ground?
KNOWN
FORMULAS
s = ut + 12at2
a = -10 m/s2 Implicit
v = u + at
s = -381 m Given
v2 = u2 + 2as
Implicit
u = 0 m/s
v=?
SOLUTION
WANTED
Since t is not
v2 = u2 + 2as
known - drop the
v2 = 02+ 2(-10)(-381)
two eqns which
-1
v
=
-87
m
s
have time in them.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Solving problems using equations of motion
for uniform acceleration
EXAMPLE: A ball is dropped off of the
Empire State Building (381 m tall). How long
does it take to reach the ground?
KNOWN
a = -10 m/s2 Implicit
s = -381 m Given
Implicit
u = 0 m/s

FORMULAS
s = ut + 12at2
v = u + at
v2 = u2 + 2as

t=?
WANTED
Since t is desired
and we have s drop
the last two eqns.

SOLUTION
s = ut + 12at2
-381 = 0t + 12 (-10)t2
t = 8.7 s

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Solving problems using equations of
motion for uniform acceleration
EXAMPLE: A cheer leader is thrown up
with an initial speed of 7 m s-1. How high
does she go?
KNOWN
FORMULAS
1 2
2
s
=
ut
+
a = -10 m/s Implicit
2at
v = u + at
Given
u = 7 m s-1
v2 = u2 + 2as
Implicit
v = 0 m/s
s=?
WANTED
Since t is not known drop the two eqns which
have time in them.

SOLUTION
v2 = u2 + 2as
02 = 72 + 2(-10)s
s = 2.45 m

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Solving problems using equations of
motion for uniform acceleration
EXAMPLE: A ball is thrown upward at 50 m s-1 from the
top of the 300-m Millau Viaduct, the highest bridge in
the world. How fast does it hit ground?
KNOWN
FORMULAS
1 2
2
s
=
ut
+
a = -10 m/s Implicit
2at
v = u + at
u = 50 m s-1 Given
v2 = u2 + 2as
Implicit
s = -300 m
v=?
WANTED
Since t is not known drop the two eqns which
have time in them.

SOLUTION
v2 = u2 + 2as
v2 = 502 + 2(-10)(-300)
v = -90 m s-1

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Solving problems using equations of
motion for uniform acceleration
EXAMPLE: A ball is thrown upward at 50 m s-1 from the
top of the 300-m Millau Viaduct, the highest bridge in
the world. How long is it in flight?
KNOWN
FORMULAS
1 2
2
s
=
ut
+
a = -10 m/s
Implicit
2at
v = u + at
u = 50 m s-1
Given
v2 = u2 + 2as
v = -90 m s-1
Calculated
WANTED
Use the simplest t
equation.

t=?

SOLUTION
v = u + at
-90 = 50 + (-10)t
t = 14 s

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Sketching and interpreting motion graphs
The slope of a displacement-time graph is the velocity.
The slope of the velocity-time graph is the
acceleration. We already did this example with the
falling feather/apple presentation.
You will have ample opportunity to find the slopes of
distance-time, displacement-time and velocity-time
graphs in your labs.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Sketching and interpreting motion graphs
EXAMPLE: Suppose Freddie the Fly begins at x = 0 m,
and travels at a constant velocity for 6 seconds as
shown. Find two points, sketch a displacement vs. time
graph, and then find and interpret the slope and the
area of your graph.

x/m t = 6 s, x = 18
t = 0, x = 0
SOLUTION:
The two points are (0 s, 0 m) and (6 s, 18 m).
The sketch is on the next slide.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Sketching and interpreting motion graphs

x/m

SOLUTION:

27
24
21
18
15
12
9
6
3
0

Rise
s = 18 - 0
s = 18 m

t=6-0
Run t = 6 s
0

t/s
The slope is rise over run or 18 m / 6 s
Thus the slope is 3 m s-1, which is interpreted as
Freddies velocity.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Sketching and interpreting motion graphs
The area under a velocity-time graph is the
displacement.
The area under an acceleration-time graph is the
change in velocity.
You will have ample opportunity to draw distance-time,
displacement-time and velocity-time graphs in your
labs.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Sketching and interpreting motion graphs

VELOCITY (ms-1 )

EXAMPLE: Calculate and interpret the area under the

given v vs. t graph. Find and interpret the slope.
50
SOLUTION:
40
The area of a
30
triangle is
20
10
A = (1/2)bh.
0
10
0
5
Thus
TIME (sec)
A = (1/2)(20 s)(30 m/s) = 300 m.
This is the displacement of the object in 20 s.
The slope is (30 m/s) / 20 s = 1.5 m s-2.
This is the acceleration of the object.

15

20

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Qualitatively describing the effect of fluid resistance on
falling objects or projectiles, including reaching terminal
speed
-Students should know what is meant by
terminal
speed.
-This is when the drag force exactly balances the
weight.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion

"A female Blue Whale weighing 190 metric

tonnes (418,877lb) and measuring 27.6m (90ft
5in) in length suddenly materialized above the
Southern Ocean on 20 March 1947."
y

Guinness World Records.

Falkland Islands Philatelic Bureau. 2 March 2002.

At first,
v=
0.

Qualitatively describing the effect of fluid

resistance on falling objects or projectiles,
W
including reaching terminal speed
Then, as v
y
Suppose a blue whale suddenly
increases, so
D
materializes high above the ground.
does D.
The drag force D is proportional to
the speed squared.
W
v
Thus, as the whale picks up speed,
v reaches a
the drag force increases.
maximum value,
D
Once the drag force equals the
called terminal y
whales weight, the whale will stop
speed.
accelerating.
D = W.
It has reached terminal speed.
W
vterminal

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Determine relative velocity in one and two dimensions
Suppose you are a passenger in a car on a perfectly
level and straight road, moving at a constant velocity.
Your velocity relative to the pavement might be 60 mph.
Your velocity relative to the driver of your car is zero.
Whereas your velocity relative to an oncoming car might
be 120 mph.
Your velocity can be measured relative to any
reference frame.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Determine relative velocity in one and two dimensions
Consider two cars, A and B, shown below.
Suppose you are in car A which is moving at vA = +20
m s-1 and next to you is car B, moving at vB = +40 m s-1.
As far as you are concerned your velocity vAB relative
to car B is -20 m s-1 because you seem to be moving
backwards relative to Bs coordinate system.
We write
vAB = vA - vB
velocity of A relative to B
B
A

Determine relative velocity in one and two

dimensions
The equation works even in two dimensions.
Suppose you are in car A which is moving at vA =
+40 m s-1 and approaching you at right angles is a
car B is moving at vB = -20 m s-1 as shown.
Since A and B are moving perpendicular to one
another, use a vector diagram to find vAB. The
solution is on the next slide.
x
A

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Determine relative velocity in one and two
dimensions
Draw in the vectors and use vAB = vA - vB.

v AB

= vA

- vB

vAB2 = 402 + 202

vB -v
B
vA

vAB2 = vA2 + vB2

vAB = 45 m s-1

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Projectile motion
A projectile is an object that has been given an initial
velocity by some sort of short-lived force, and then
moves through the air under the influence of gravity.
Baseballs, stones, or bullets are all examples of
projectiles executing projectile motion.
You know that all objects moving through air feel an air
resistance (recall sticking your hand out of the window
of a moving car).
FYI
We will ignore air
resistance in the
discussion that
follows

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion

ay = -g
Speeding up in -y dir.

ay = -g
Slowing down in +y dir.

Analysing projectile motion

Regardless of the air resistance, the vertical and the
horizontal components of velocity of an object in
projectile motion are independent.

Constant speed in +x dir. ax = 0

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Analysing projectile motion
The trajectory of a projectile in the absence of air is
parabolic. Know this!

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Analysing projectile motion with fluid resistance
If there is air resistance, it is proportional to the square
of the velocity. Thus, when the ball moves fast its
deceleration is greater than when it moves slow.
Peak to left of
original one.

Pre-peak distance
more than postpeak.
SKETCH POINTS

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Analysing projectile motion
Recall the kinematic equations:
kinematic
equations 1D
a is constant
Since we worked only in 1D at the time, we didnt have
to distinguish between x and y in these equations.
Now we appropriately modify the above to meet our
new requirements of simultaneous equations:
s = ut + (1/2)at 2
v = u + at

Displacement
Velocity

x = uxt + (1/2)axt 2
vx = ux + axt
y = uyt + (1/2)ayt 2
vy = uy + ayt

kinematic
equations 2D
ax and ay are
constant

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Analysing projectile motion
x

= uxt + (1/2)axt 2
0
vx = ux + axt
y = uyt + (1/2)ayt 2
vy = uy + ayt

kinematic
equations 2D
ax and ay are
constant

PRACTICE: Show that the reduced equations for

projectile motion are
x = uxt
y = uyt - 5t 2
reduced equations of
vx = ux
vy = uy - 10t
projectile motion
SOLUTION:
ax = 0 in the absence of air resistance.
ay = -10 in the absence of air resistance.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Analysing projectile motion
x = uxt
y = uyt - 5t 2
vx = ux
vy = uy - 10t

reduced equations of
projectile motion

EXAMPLE: Use the reduced equations above to prove

that projectile motion is parabolic in nature.
SOLUTION: Just solve for t in the first equation and
substitute it into the second equation.
x = uxt becomes t = x / ux so that t 2 = x2 / ux2.
Then since y = uyt - 5t 2, we have
y = (uy / ux)x (5 / ux2)x2.
FYI
The equation of a parabola is y = Ax + Bx2.
In this case, A = uy / ux and B = -5 / ux2.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Analysing projectile motion
x = uxt
y = uyt - 5t 2
vx = ux
vy = uy - 10t

reduced equations of
projectile motion

PRACTICE: A cannon fires a projectile with a muzzle

velocity of 56 ms-1 at an angle of inclination of 15.
(a) What are ux and uy?
SOLUTION: Make a velocity triangle.
-1
s
m
uy = u sin
6
5
=
u
= 15
uy = 56 sin 15
ux = u cos
uy = 15 m s-1.
ux = 56 cos 15
ux = 54 m s-1

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Analysing projectile motion
x = uxt
y = uyt - 5t 2
vx = ux
vy = uy - 10t

reduced equations of
projectile motion

PRACTICE: A cannon fires a projectile with a muzzle

velocity of 56 ms-1 at an angle of inclination of 15.
(b) What are the tailored equations of motion?
(c) When will the ball reach its maximum height?
SOLUTION: (b) Just substitute ux = 54 and uy = 15:
x = 54t
vx = 54

y = 15t - 5t2
vy = 15 - 10t

tailored equations for

this particular projectile

(c) At the maximum height, vy = 0. Why? Thus

vy = 15 - 10t becomes 0 = 15 - 10t so that
10t = 15 or t = 1.5 s.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Analysing projectile motion
x = 54t
y = 15t - 5t 2
vx = 54
vy = 15 - 10t

tailored equations for

this particular projectile

PRACTICE: A cannon fires a projectile with a muzzle

velocity of 56 ms-1 at an angle of inclination of 15.
(d) How far from the muzzle will the ball be when it
reaches the height of the muzzle at the end of its
trajectory?
SOLUTION:
From symmetry tup = tdown = 1.5 s so t = 3.0 s.
Thus
x = 54t
x = 54(3.0)
x = 160 m.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Analysing projectile motion
x = 54t
y = 15t - 5t 2
vx = 54
vy = 15 - 10t

tailored equations for

this particular projectile

PRACTICE: A cannon fires a projectile with a muzzle

velocity of 56 ms-1 at an angle of inclination of 15.
(e) Sketch the following graphs:
a vs. t,
vx vs. t,
vy vs. t:
a
SOLUTION: The only acceleration y
is g in the
t
-10
y-direction.
vx
vx = 54, a constant. Thus it does 54
t
not change over time.
vy = 15 - 10t Thus it is linear with vy
15
a negative gradient and it crosses
t
1.5
the time axis at 1.5 s.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Analysing projectile motion

The acceleration is ALWAYS g for projectile motionsince it is caused by Earth and its field.
At the maximum height the projectile switches from
upward to downward motion. v = 0 at switch.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Analysing projectile motion

The flight time is

limited by the y
motion.
The maximum
height is limited by
the y motion.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Analysing projectile motion

ax = 0.
ay = -10 ms-2.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Analysing projectile motion
y = uyt - 5t 2
-33 = 0t - 5t 2
-33 = -5t 2
(33/5) = t 2

Fall time limited by y-equations:

t = 2.6 s.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Analysing projectile motion
x = uxt
x = 18(2.6)

Use x-equations and t = 2.6 s:

x = 47 m.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Analysing projectile motion

vx = ux
vx = 18.

vy = uy 10t
vy = 0 10t
vy = 10(2.6) = -26.

tan = 26/18
= tan-1(26/18) = 55.

18
26

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Analysing projectile motion

The horizontal component of velocity is vx = ux which is

CONSTANT.
The vertical component of velocity is vy = uy 10t ,
which is INCREASING (negatively).

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Analysing projectile motion

EK + EP = 0
EK = -EP
EK = -mgh
EKo = (1/2)mu2

EK = -(0.44)(9.8)(-32) = +138 J = EK EKo

EK = +138 + (1/2)(0.44)(222) = 240 J.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Analysing projectile motion

If 34% of the energy is

consumed, 76% remains.
0.76(240) = 180 J
(1/2)(0.44)v2 = 180 J

v = 29 ms-1.

(1/2)mvf2 - (1/2)mv2 = -EP

mvf2 = mv2 + -2mg(0-H)
Topic 2: Mechanics
vf2 = v2 + 2gH
2.1 Motion
Analysing projectile motion

Use EK + EP = 0.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Analysing projectile motion

uy = u sin
uy = 28 sin 30
ux = u cos
ux = 28 cos 30

ux = 24 m s-1.
uy = 14 m s-1.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Analysing projectile motion
x = uxt
16 = 24t
t = 16 / 24 = 0.67
The time to the wall is found from x

y = uyt 5t 2
y = 14t 5t 2
y = 14(0.67) 5(0.67)2 = 7.1 m.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Analysing projectile motion

0.5s
0.0s
4m
ux = x / t = (4 - 0) / (0.5 - 0.0) = 8 ms-1.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Analysing projectile motion

0.5s
11 m
0.0s
4m
uy = y / t = (11 - 0) / (0.5 - 0.0) = 22 ms-1.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Analysing projectile motion
2.0 2.5 3.0
1.5

1.0
30 m

0.5s
11 m
= tan-1(30/24) = 51

0.0s
24 m
4m
D2 = 242 + 302 so that D = 38 m ,@ = 51.

Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1 Motion
Analysing projectile motion
New
peak
below and
left.
Pre-peak
greater
than postpeak.