Chapter 1

Computer Networks
and the Internet

A note on the source use of these ppt

slides:
These slides have been prepared by The
authors of this book, i.e. J.F. Kurose and Keith
Ross, with a few modifications

Computer Networking:
A Top Down Approach
Featuring the Internet,
3rd edition.
Jim Kurose, Keith Ross
Addison-Wesley,

Chapter 1: Introduction
Our goal:

get context,
overview, feel of
networking
more depth, detail
later in course
approach:
descriptive
use Internet as
example

Overview:

whats the Internet

whats a protocol?
network edge
network core
access net, physical media
Internet/ISP structure
performance: loss, delay
protocol layers, service models
history

Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History

Whats the Internet:

nuts and bolts view

millions of connected
computing devices: hosts,
end-systems

server

fiber, copper, radio, satellite

transmission rate =
bandwidth

routers: forward packets

(chunks of data)

workstation
mobile

local ISP

regional ISP

running network apps

communication links

PCs workstations, servers

PDAs phones, toasters

router

company
network

Cool internet appliances

IP picture frame
http://www.ceiva.com/

Web-enabled toaster+weather forecaster

Worlds smallest web server
http://www-ccs.cs.umass.edu/~shri/iPic.html

Whats the Internet:

nuts and bolts view

protocols control sending,

receiving of msgs

server

RFC: Request for comments

IETF: Internet Engineering
Task Force

mobile

regional ISP

loosely hierarchical
public Internet versus private
intranet

Internet standards

workstation

local ISP

Internet: network of
networks

e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, FTP,

PPP

router

company
network

Whats the Internet: a service view

communication
infrastructure enables
distributed applications:

communication services
provided to apps:
connectionless
Connection-oriented
Currently, no gurantees about
performance (Best Effort).

Web, email, games, ecommerce, database.,

voting, file (MP3) sharing

Whats a protocol?
human protocols:
whats the time?
I have a question
introductions
specific msgs sent
specific actions
taken when msgs
received, or other
events

network protocols:
machines rather than
humans
all communication
activity in Internet
governed by protocols
protocols define format,
order of msgs sent and
received among network
entities, and actions
taken on msg
transmission, receipt

Whats a protocol?
A human protocol and a computer network protocol:
Hi
Hi
Got the
time?

2:00

TCP connection
req
TCP connection
response
Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross

<file>

Time
All activity in the Internet that involves two or more
communicating remote entities is governed by a
protocol. (Routing protocols, Congestion Control
protocols, media access protocols, etc.)

A closer look at network structure:

network edge:
applications and hosts
network core:
routers
network of networks

access networks,
physical media:
communication links

Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History

The network edge:

end systems (hosts):

run application programs

e.g. Web, email
at edge of network

client/server model

client host requests, receives

service from always-on server
e.g. Web browser/server; email
client/server

peer-peer model:

minimal (or no) use of

dedicated servers
e.g. Gnutella, KaZaA

Network edge: connection-oriented service

Goal: data transfer between

end systems
handshaking: setup (prepare
for) data transfer ahead of
time

Exchange control packets

set up state in two
communicating hosts (e.g.
Sequence number of next
packet)

TCP - Transmission Control

Protocol

Internets connection-oriented
service

TCP service [RFC 793]

reliable, in-order byte-stream

data transfer

flow control:

loss: acknowledgements, timeouts and, retransmissions

sender wont overwhelm

receiver (receiver may be
slower/busier than sender)

congestion control:

senders slow down sending

rate when network congested

Network edge: connectionless service

Goal: data transfer between end
systems

same as before!

Connection-less:
No hand shaking.
UDP - User Datagram Protocol
[RFC 768]: Internets
connectionless service
unreliable data transfer
no flow control
no congestion control

Apps using TCP:

HTTP (Web), FTP (file

transfer), Telnet
(remote login), SMTP
(email)

Apps using UDP:

streaming media,
teleconferencing, DNS,
Internet telephony

Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History

The Network Core

mesh of interconnected
routers
the fundamental question:
how is data transferred
through net?
circuit switching:
dedicated circuit per call:
telephone net
packet-switching: data
sent thru net in discrete
chunks

Network Core: Circuit Switching

End-end resources
reserved for call

link bandwidth, switch

capacity
dedicated resources:
no sharing
circuit-like (guaranteed)
performance
call setup required

Network Core: Circuit Switching

network resources
(e.g., bandwidth)
divided into
pieces

pieces allocated to
calls
resource piece idle if
not used by owning
call (no sharing)

dividing link bandwidth

into pieces
frequency division
time division

Circuit Switching: FDMA and TDMA

Example:

FDMA

4 users

frequency
time
TDMA

frequency
time

Network Core: Packet Switching

each end-end data stream
divided into packets
Different users' packets
share network resources
each packet uses full link
bandwidth
resources used as needed
Bandwidth division into pieces
Dedicated allocation
Resource reservation

resource contention:
aggregate resource
demand can exceed
amount available
congestion: packets
queue, wait for link use
store and forward:
packets move one hop
at a time
transmit over link
wait turn at next
link

Packet Switching: Statistical Multiplexing

10 Mbs
Ethernet

A
B

statistical multiplexing
1.5 Mbs

queue of packets
waiting for output
link

Sequence of A & B packets does not have fixed

pattern statistical multiplexing.
In TDM each host gets same slot in revolving TDM
frame.

Packet switching versus circuit

switching
Packet switching allows more users to use network!

1 Mbit link
each user:

circuit-switching:

100 kbps when active

active 10% of time
N users
10 users

packet switching:

with 35 users, probability >

10 active less than .0004

1 Mbps link

Packet switching versus circuit switching

Is packet switching a slam dunk winner?

Great for bursty data

resource sharing
Simpler, may have no call setup
Excessive congestion: packet delay and loss
protocols needed for reliable data transfer,
congestion control
Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior?
bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video apps
still an unsolved problem (chapter 6)

Packet-switching: store-andforward
L

Takes L/R seconds to

transmit (push out)
packet of L bits on to
link at R bps
Entire packet must
arrive at router before it
can be transmitted on
next link: store and
forward
delay = 3L/R

Example:
L = 7.5 Mbits
R = 1.5 Mbps
Transmission delay = 15 sec

Circuit Switching:
L = 7.5 Mbits
R = 1.5 Mbps
Transmission delay = 5
sec

Packet-switched networks: forwarding

Goal: move packets through routers from source to

destination

datagram network:

well study several path selection (routing algorithms in Ch4)

destination address in packet determines next hop
routes may change during session
analogy: driving, asking directions

virtual circuit network:

each packet carries tag (virtual circuit ID), tag determines next
hop
fixed path determined at call setup time, remains fixed thru call
routers maintain per-call state

Network Taxonomy
Telecommunication
networks

Circuit-switched
networks

FDM

Internet

TDM

Packet-switched
networks
Networks
with VCs

Datagram
Networks

provides both connection-oriented (TCP) and

connectionless services (UDP) to apps.

Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History

Access networks and physical media

Q: How to connect end
systems to edge router?
residential access nets
institutional access networks
(school, company)
mobile access networks
Keep in mind:
bandwidth (bits per second)
of access network?
shared or dedicated?

Residential access: point to point

access

Dialup via modem

up to 56Kbps direct access to
router (often less)
Cant surf and phone at same
time: cant be always on

ADSL: asymmetric digital subscriber line

up to 1 Mbps upstream (today typically < 256 kbps)

up to 8 Mbps downstream (today typically < 1 Mbps)
FDM: 50 kHz - 1 MHz for downstream

4 kHz - 50 kHz for upstream

0 kHz - 4 kHz for ordinary telephone

Residential access: cable modems

HFC: hybrid fiber coax

asymmetric: up to 10Mbps upstream, 1 Mbps
downstream
network of cable and fibre attaches homes to ISP
router
shared access to router among home
issues: congestion, dimensioning
deployment: available via cable companies

Residential access: cable modems

Regional Cable Headend: (typically serving 200,000 to
400,000 homes), which feeds:
Distribution Hubs: (each serving 20,000 to 40,000
homes) through a metropolitan fiber ring. At the,
distribution hubs, signals are modulated onto analog
carriers and then transported over fiber-optic lines to
Fiber nodes: nodes serving 500 to 5,000 homes.
From the fiber node, these signals are carried via
coaxial cable to a home or business.

Cable TV Netowrk
Typical coaxial cable systems range:
Traditional bandwidth 330 MHz to 450 MHz
Modern hybrid fiber/coax (HFC) systems : to 750
MHz or more .

Typical Downstream Range

Traditional : 50 MHz to 450 MHz
Modern HFC: 50 MHz to 700 MHz

Typical Upstream Range: 5 MHz 42 MHz

No. of TV Channels:
Traditional : 60 Channels
Modern HFC: 110 Channels

Cable Modem Netowrk

To deliver data services
One 6MHz television channel (out of the 50 - 750 MHz range) is
typically allocated for downstream traffic to homes
And another channel (in the 5 - 42 MHz band) is used to carry
upstream signals.

A single downstream 6 MHz television channel may support

up to 27 Mbps of downstream data throughput from the cable
headend using 64 QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation)
transmission technology
Upstream channels may deliver 500 Kbps to 10 Mbps from
homes using 16QAM or QPSK (quadrature phase shift key)
modulation techniques, depending on the amount of spectrum
allocated for service

Company access: local area networks

company/univ local area

network (LAN) connects end
system to edge router

Ethernet:
shared or dedicated link
connects end system and
router
10 Mbs, 100Mbps, Gigabit
Ethernet

deployment: institutions, home

LANs happening now
LANs: chapter 5

Wireless access networks

shared wireless access

network connects end system
to router

wireless LANs:

via base station aka access

point

router
base
station

802.11b (WiFi): 11 Mbps

wider-area wireless access

provided by telco operator

3G ~ 384 kbps
Will it happen??
WAP/GPRS in Europe

mobile
hosts

Physical Media

Bit: propagates between

transmitter/rcvr pairs
physical link: what lies
between transmitter &
receiver
guided media:

signals propagate in solid

media: copper, fiber, coax

unguided media:

signals propagate freely, e.g.,

radio

Twisted Pair (TP)

two insulated copper
wires

Category 3:
traditional phone
wires, 10 Mbps
Ethernet
Category 5 TP:
100Mbps Ethernet

Physical Media: coax, fiber

Coaxial cable:

two concentric copper

conductors
bidirectional
baseband:

single channel on cable

legacy Ethernet

broadband:

multiple channel on cable

HFC

Fiber optic cable:

glass fiber carrying light

pulses, each pulse a bit

high-speed operation:

high-speed point-to-point
transmission (e.g., 5 Gps)

low error rate: repeaters

spaced far apart ; immune

to electromagnetic noise

Physical media: radio

signal carried in
electromagnetic
spectrum
no physical wire
bidirectional
propagation
environment effects:

reflection
obstruction by objects
interference

Radio link types:

terrestrial microwave
e.g. up to 45 Mbps channels
LAN (e.g., WaveLAN)

2Mbps, 11Mbps

wide-area (e.g., cellular)

e.g. 3G: hundreds of kbps
satellite

up to 50Mbps channel
270 msec end-end delay
geosynchronous versus lowaltitude

Physical Media

Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History

Internet structure: network of networks

roughly hierarchical
at center: tier-1 ISPs (e.g., UUNet, BBN/Genuity,
Sprint, AT&T), national/international coverage
treat each other as equals
Tier-1
providers
interconnect
(peer)
privately

Tier 1 ISP

Tier 1 ISP

NAP

Tier 1 ISP

Tier-1 providers
also interconnect
at public network
access points
(NAPs)

Tier-1 ISP: e.g., Sprint

Sprint US backbone network

Internet structure: network of networks

Tier-2 ISPs: smaller (often regional) ISPs

Connect to one or more tier-1 ISPs, possibly other tier2 ISPs

Tier-2 ISP pays

tier-1 ISP for
connectivity to
rest of Internet

tier-2 ISP is
customer of
tier-1 provider

Tier-2 ISP

Tier-2 ISP

Tier 1 ISP

Tier 1 ISP
Tier-2 ISP

NAP

Tier 1 ISP
Tier-2 ISP

Tier-2 ISPs
also peer
privately with
each other,
interconnect
at NAP
Tier-2 ISP

Internet structure: network of networks

Tier-3 ISPs and local ISPs

last hop (access) network (closest to end systems)

local
ISP

Local and tier3 ISPs are

customers of
higher tier
ISPs
connecting
them to rest
of Internet

Tier 3
ISP
Tier-2 ISP

local
ISP

local
ISP

local
ISP
Tier-2 ISP

Tier 1 ISP

Tier 1 ISP

Tier-2 ISP
local
local
ISP
ISP

NAP

Tier 1 ISP
Tier-2 ISP
local
ISP

Tier-2 ISP
local
ISP

Internet structure: network of networks

a packet passes through many networks!

local
ISP

Tier 3
ISP
Tier-2 ISP

local
ISP

local
ISP

local
ISP
Tier-2 ISP

Tier 1 ISP

Tier 1 ISP
Tier-2 ISP
local
local
ISP
ISP

NAP

Tier 1 ISP
Tier-2 ISP
local
ISP

Tier-2 ISP
local
ISP

Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History

How do loss and delay occur?

packets queue in router buffers

When packet arrival rate to link exceeds output

link capacity
packets queue, wait for turn
packet being transmitted (delay)

A
B

packets queueing (delay)

free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers

Four sources of packet delay

1. nodal processing:

check bit errors

determine output link

2. queuing
time waiting at output
link for transmission
depends on congestion
level of router

transmission

propagation

nodal
processing

queueing

Delay in packet-switched
networks

3. Transmission delay:
R=link bandwidth (bps)
L=packet length (bits)
time to send bits into
link = L/R

4. Propagation delay:
d = length of physical link
s = propagation speed in
medium (~2x108 m/sec)
propagation delay = d/s

transmission

propagation

nodal
processing

queueing

Note: s and R are very

different quantities!

Caravan analogy
100 km
ten-car
caravan

toll
booth

100 km
toll
booth

Time to push entire

Cars propagate at
100 km/hr
caravan through toll
Toll booth takes 12 sec to
booth onto highway =
service a car (transmission
12*10 = 120 sec
time)
Time for last car to
car~bit; caravan ~ packet
propagate from 1st to
Q: How long until caravan is
2nd toll both: 100km/
lined up before 2nd toll booth?

(100km/hr)= 1 hr
A: 62 minutes

Caravan analogy (more)

100 km
ten-car
caravan

toll
booth

Cars now propagate at

1000 km/hr
Toll booth now takes 1
min to service a car
Q: Will cars arrive to 2nd
booth before all cars
serviced at 1st booth?

100 km
toll
booth

Yes! After 7 min, 1st car at

2nd booth and 3 cars still at
1st booth.
1st bit of packet can arrive at
2nd router before packet is
fully transmitted at 1st router!

See Ethernet applet at AWL

Web site

Nodal delay

dproc = processing delay

dqueue = queuing delay

depends on congestion

dtrans = transmission delay

typically a few microsecs or less

= L/R, significant for low-speed links

dprop = propagation delay

a few microsecs to hundreds of msecs

Queueing delay (revisited)

R=link bandwidth (bps)

L=packet length (bits)
a=average packet arrival
rate
traffic intensity = La/R

La/R ~ a: average queueing delay small

La/R -> 1: delays become large
La/R > 1: more work arriving than can be

serviced, average delay infinite!

Real Internet delays and routes

What do real Internet delay & loss look like?

Traceroute program: provides delay measurement
from source to router along end-end Internet path
towards destination. For all i:

sends three packets that will reach router i on path towards

destination
router i will return packets to sender
sender times interval between transmission and reply.

3 probes
3 probes

3 probes

Real Internet delays and routes

traceroute: gaia.cs.umass.edu to www.eurecom.fr
Three delay measurements from
gaia.cs.umass.edu to cs-gw.cs.umass.edu
1 cs-gw (128.119.240.254) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
2 border1-rt-fa5-1-0.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.145) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
3 cht-vbns.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.130) 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms
4 jn1-at1-0-0-19.wor.vbns.net (204.147.132.129) 16 ms 11 ms 13 ms
5 jn1-so7-0-0-0.wae.vbns.net (204.147.136.136) 21 ms 18 ms 18 ms
6 abilene-vbns.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.11.9) 22 ms 18 ms 22 ms
7 nycm-wash.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.8.46) 22 ms 22 ms 22 ms trans-oceanic
8 62.40.103.253 (62.40.103.253) 104 ms 109 ms 106 ms
link
9 de2-1.de1.de.geant.net (62.40.96.129) 109 ms 102 ms 104 ms
10 de.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.96.50) 113 ms 121 ms 114 ms
11 renater-gw.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.103.54) 112 ms 114 ms 112 ms
12 nio-n2.cssi.renater.fr (193.51.206.13) 111 ms 114 ms 116 ms
13 nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.102) 123 ms 125 ms 124 ms
14 r3t2-nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.110) 126 ms 126 ms 124 ms
15 eurecom-valbonne.r3t2.ft.net (193.48.50.54) 135 ms 128 ms 133 ms
16 194.214.211.25 (194.214.211.25) 126 ms 128 ms 126 ms
17 * * *
* means no response (probe lost, router not replying)
18 * * *
19 fantasia.eurecom.fr (193.55.113.142) 132 ms 128 ms 136 ms

Packet loss
queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer
has finite capacity
when packet arrives to full queue, packet
is dropped (aka lost)
lost packet may be retransmitted by
previous node, by source end system, or
not retransmitted at all

Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History

Protocol Layers
Networks are complex!
many pieces:
hosts
routers
links of various
media
applications
protocols
hardware,
software

Question:
Is there any hope of
organizing structure of
network?
Or at least our discussion of
networks?

Why layering?
Dealing with complex systems:

explicit structure allows identification,

relationship of complex systems pieces
layered reference model for discussion
modularization eases maintenance, updating
of system
change of implementation of layers service
transparent to rest of system
layering considered harmful?

OSI Layers

Internet protocol stack

application: supporting network

applications

transport: host-host data transfer

IP, routing protocols

link: data transfer between neighboring

network elements

TCP, UDP

network: routing of datagrams from

source to destination

FTP, SMTP, STTP

PPP, Ethernet

physical: bits on the wire

application
transport
network
link
physical

Layering: logical communication

Each layer:
distributed
entities
implement layer
functions at each
node
entities perform
actions,
exchange
messages with
peers

application
transport
network
link
physical
application
transport
network
link
physical

network
link
physical

application
transport
network
link
physical

application
transport
network
link
physical

Layering: logical communication

E.g.: transport

take data from app

add addressing,
reliability check
info to form
datagram
send datagram to
peer
wait for peer to
ack receipt
analogy: post
office

data
application
transport
transport
network
link
physical
application
transport
network
link
physical

ack
data

network
link
physical

application
transport
network
link
physical

data
application
transport
transport
network
link
physical

Layering: physical communication

data
application
transport
network
link
physical
application
transport
network
link
physical

network
link
physical

application
transport
network
link
physical

data
application
transport
network
link
physical

Layering: physical communication

data
application
transport
network
link
physical
network
link
physical

application
transport
network
link
physical

Switching
link
Hub
physical

application
transport
network
link
physical

data
application
transport
network
link
physical

Protocol layering and data

Each layer takes data from above
adds header information to create new data unit
passes new data unit to layer below

M
Ht M
Hn Ht M
Hl Hn Ht M

source
application
transport
network
link
physical

destination
application
Ht
transport
Hn Ht
network
link
Hl Hn Ht
physical

message

M
M
M

segment

datagram
frame

Protocol layering and data

Protocol layering and data

Protocol layering and data

Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 ISPs and Internet backbones
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Internet structure and ISPs
1.8 History

Internet History
1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles

1961: Kleinrock queueing theory shows

effectiveness of packetswitching
1964: Baran - packetswitching in military nets
1967: ARPAnet conceived
by Advanced Research
Projects Agency
1969: first ARPAnet node
operational

1972:
ARPAnet
demonstrated publicly
NCP (Network Control
Protocol) first hosthost protocol
first e-mail program
ARPAnet has 15
nodes

Internet History
1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary nets

1970: ALOHAnet satellite

network in Hawaii
1973: Metcalfes PhD thesis
proposes Ethernet
1974: Cerf and Kahn architecture for interconnecting
networks
late70s: proprietary
architectures: DECnet, SNA,
XNA
late 70s: switching fixed length
packets (ATM precursor)
1979: ARPAnet has 200 nodes

Cerf and Kahns

internetworking principles:
minimalism, autonomy no internal changes
required to interconnect
networks
best effort service model
stateless routers
decentralized control
define todays Internet
architecture

Internet History
1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of networks

1983: deployment of
TCP/IP
1982: SMTP e-mail
protocol defined
1983: DNS defined for
name-to-IP-address
translation
1985: FTP protocol
defined
1988: TCP congestion
control

new national
networks: Csnet,
BITnet, NSFnet,
Minitel
100,000 hosts
connected to
confederation of
networks

Internet History
1990, 2000s: commercialization, the Web, new apps

Early 1990s: ARPAnet

decommissioned
1991: NSF lifts restrictions on
commercial use of NSFnet
(decommissioned, 1995)
early 1990s: Web
hypertext [Bush 1945, Nelson
1960s]
HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee
1994: Mosaic, later Netscape
late 1990s:
commercialization of the Web

Late 1990s 2000s:

more killer apps:

instant messaging,
peer2peer file sharing
(e.g., Napster)
network security to
forefront
est. 50 million host,
100 million+ users
backbone links running
at Gbps

Introduction: Summary
Covered a ton of material!
Internet overview
whats a protocol?
network edge, core, access
network
packet-switching versus
circuit-switching
Virtual circuit vs datagram
Internet/ISP structure
performance: loss, delay
layering and service models
history

You now have:

context, overview,
feel of networking
more depth, detail
to follow!

Fun Examples
Communications with Mars (Spirit)

60000000 bits, data

12000 bits per second
5000 seconds, transm delay
300000000 meters/sec, speed of light
3.2E+11 meters, distance to mars
1066.666667 seconds, propagation delay

101.11 minutes

7356416 one image size

8.156146 images