AN INTRODUCTION TO

CONTROL VALVE

2nd May 2002

TOPICS COVERED
Types

of Valves
Details of Globe Valves
Valve Body and Material Selection
Required Information from x-y-z
Valve Specification
Sizing Steps
Valve Characteristics

TOPICS COVERED
Valve

Behavior Under Different

Liquid Phenomena
Terminology in Valves
Positioners
Valve Packing
Seat Leakage Classification
Regulators and Actuators NOT Covered.
Noise and Dynamic Performance NOT Covered

What is a Control Valve?

A control valve is a device capable of modulating
flow at varying degrees between minimal flow and
full capacity in response to a signal from an external
control device. The control valve, often referred to as
"the final control element," is a critical part of any
control loop, as it performs the physical work and is
the element that directly affects the process.

Valve Classification
JV-01

General Service Control Valves

JV-05: Regulators
JV-07: De Superheating Valves
JV-09: Actuated On/ Off Ball Valves
JV-13: Severe Service Control Valves

Linear Motion Control Valve

TORTUOUS FLOW PATH

LOW RECOVERY
CAN THROTTLE SMALL FLOW
RATES
SUITED TO HIGH-PRESSURE APPLICATIONS
USUALLY FLANGED OR THREADED
SEPARABLE BONNET
OFFERS VARIETY OF SPECIAL TRIM DESIGNS

Rotary Motion Control Valve

STREAMLINED FLOW PATH
HIGH RECOVERY

CAN HANDLE SLURRY AND ABRASIVES

FLANGELESS
INTEGRAL BONNET
MORE CAPACITY
LESS PACKING WEAR

GLOBE VALVE STYLE

GLOBE VALVES

The part of the globe valve that controls flow is the disk, which
is attached to the valve stem. The valve is closed by turning the
valve stem in until the disk is seated into the valve seat. The
edge of the disk and the seat are very accurately machined so
that they form a tight seal when the valve is closed. When the
valve is open, the fluid flows through the space between the
edge of the disk and the seat.

SINGLE SEATED VALVE

The valve shown has a single seat
and a single plug. In singleseated
valves, the process line pressure
acts on the bottom area of the
plug, creating an upward force on
the valve stem. The diaphragm
actuator must act against and
overcome this force in order to
move or hold the stem downward.
The larger the valve or the higher the line
pressure, the greater the actuator force must be.
Therefore it is evident that for large size valves, or
for high line pressures, singleseated valves
generally cannot be used..

DOUBLE SEATED CONTROL VALVE

One disadvantage of doubleseat
construction is that with variations in
temperature,
the
stem
portion
between the two plugs contracts or
expands linearly a different amount
than the valve body. In the closed
position, therefore, both plugs will not
seat simultaneously and a small
leakage flow will occur. For tight
shutoff, singleseated valves must be
used.

Doubleseated valves have two plugs and two seats. The

line pressure acting upward on one plug and downward on
the other produces a balance of forces. Doubleseated
valves are known as balanced or semi balanced valves.
Doubleseated valves are used for applications involving
high pressures or where the valve size is large.

SINGLE V/S DOUBLE SEATED VALVE

* Single Seated Valves are an excellent choice when a higher
degree of shut-off is required. However, this design is
unbalanced and limited in the pressure that it will shut off
against. The leakage rate is approximately 0.1% of the
maximum capacity.
* Double Seated Valves are nearly pressure balanced and,
therefore, are able to close the valve plug against higher operating
pressures. However, since temperature fluctuations may cause
expansion and contraction across the seats, tight shut-off is not
always possible. The leakage rate is approximately 0.5% of the
maximum capacity. Double seated valves have a faster flow
response and greater capacity than single seated valves and are
recommended when tight shut-off is not required. *

Double-Seated

Balanced Valves with Cage

Throttling Trim

Control Valves End Connection:

Most Widely used connection:
Flanged

- Lined pipe, Galvanized pipe

systems.
Buttwelding - Standard for large valves
in high pressure systems, particularly
steam.
Socket Welding - for small valves.
Screwed - for small valves, generally in
low pressure systems.

REQUIRED INFORMATION FOR

SIZING
Type of fluid and its physical properties;
Fluid phase (gas, liquid, slurry, multiphase, etc.);
Density (specific gravity, molecular weight, specific
weight, etc.);
Vapor pressure;
Viscosity;
Critical temperature and pressure;
Degrees of superheat or existence of flashing
(vaporization curve across the valve);
Corrosive properties due to contaminants (H2S,
chlorides, etc.);

REQUIRED INFORMATIOM FOR

SIZING

Quantity and type of solids (sand, silica, catalyst, etc.);

Minimum, normal, and maximum inlet and outlet
pressure at the valve;
Minimum, normal, and maximum operating temperature
at the valve;
Minimum, normal, and maximum flow rates for each
operational state including startup and upset situations;
Minimum, normal, and maximum operating pressure
drop at the valve;
Pressure drop at shutoff;

REQUIRED INFORMATIOM FOR

SIZING

Shutoff leakage requirements;

Startup conditions/procedures;
Upset condition inlet pressure and temperature;
Inlet and outlet pipe size and schedule;
Maximum permissible noise level and reference point;
Installation environmental conditions; and
Type of erosion occurring or expected (abrasive particle,
cavitation, erosive-corrosive, or high liquid velocity
impingement).

SPECIFICATION OF A VALVE

Valve body construction (angle, double-port,

butterfly, etc.);
Body material (316 stainless steel, Inconel, ceramic,
etc.);
End connections and rating;
Valve plug or disk style (quick opening, linear, etc.);
Valve plug or disk action (air to open or close);
Port size (full or restricted);
Valve trim materials;

SPECIFICATION OF A VALVE

Action desired on failure of input signal (open,

closed, or fail-in-place);
Flow action (flow tends to open or close);
Input signal type (pneumatic, electric, etc.);
Actuator type and size;
Environmental requirements;
Packing material (Teflon, graphite, etc.);
Area classification; and
Accessories required (controller, limit switch,

handwheel, etc.).

SELECTING A CONTROL VALVE

1 Calculate required Cv
2. Select body material
3. Select body rating
4. Select shut-off Class required
5. Choose body style
6. Choose body size
7. Select trim size
8. Select trim material

VALVE SIZING EXAMPLE

STEP #1: Specify Process Data

The system is pumping water from one tank to another

through a piping system.

Total System Pressure drop is 150 psi.

Temperature of water 70 0F.
Maximum flowrate of 150 gpm,
Operating flowrate of 110 gpm,
Minimum flowrate of 25 gpm.
The pipe diameter is 3 inches.
Specific gravity of 1.0.

Key Variables: Total pressure drop, design flow, operating flow,

minimum flow, pipe diameter, specific gravity.

PUMPING CIRCUIT

Does not change with flow

Pump discharge head = friction losses+

Head loss+
delivery pressure
DPcv
Friction loss = line loss + equipment loss

Pressure

SYSTEM CURVE

Pump Curve
DP cv

System curve
F+Pend+H
Pend+H
Pend
Qn

Flow

Q max

SYSTEM PRESSURE DROP

@

Maximum flow
Compute
Friction loss in equipment without CV. (p
Q2 )
End pressure and static head remain
unchanged.
Read pump head at max flow from pump curve
( or assume flat curve).

DPcv= Ps-F-Pend-H

SYSTEM PRESSURE DROP

PRESSURE DROP ALLOWANCE:
SINGLE PLUG VALVE 11 PSI
DOUBLE PLUG 7 PSI
CAGE VALVE - UNBALANCE 4 PSI
CAGE VALVE BALANCE 4 PSI
BUTTERFLY 0.2 PSI
V BALL 1 PSI
REQUIRED DELTA P= 0.05Ps + 1.1[ (Qm/Qd)2-1] F + B

SYSTEM PRESSURE DROP

Bechtel practice to specify pumps for a rated flow
which is higher than the normal flow.
However for the rated flow, it is the normal practice to
specify the pump differential at the same value as
calculated for the normal flow.
The delivery pressure is maintained by reducing the
control valve pressure drop to compensate for the
increased frictional (dynamic) losses for the higher
flow.

SYSTEM PRESSURE DROP

In order to obtain effective control under all flow conditions,
the control valve must represent a relatively high proportion
of the pressure drop in the system. Therefore, the control
valve pressure drop at normal flow should be:

0.7 bar (10 psi)

20% of dynamic losses
5% of the total pump differential head.

At the rated flow, the control valve pressure drop should

be:
0.7 bar (10 psi)
15% of dynamic losses

VALVE SIZING EXAMPLE

TRADE OFF:
LARGER PRESSURE DROPS INCREASE THE PUMPING
COST (OPERATING) AND SMALLER PRESSURE DROPS
INCREASE THE VALVE COST BECAUSE A LARGER
VALVE IS REQUIRED (CAPITAL COST).
THUMB RULE:
DESIGN THE VALVE TO USE 10-15% OF THE TOTAL
PRESSURE DROP OR 10 PSI, WHICHEVER IS GREATER.
FOR OUR SYSTEM, 10% OF THE TOTAL PRESSURE
DROP IS 15 PSI WHICH IS WHAT WE WILL USE.

Recommendation
For

Fixed Speed BFP, use valve Pressure

drop of 300 psi and 100 psi for fixed speed
condensate pump.
For variable speed BFP, use 100 psi as
valve pressure drop.
These are initial values for start but finally
it has to be checked by system engineer.

VALVE SIZING EXAMPLE

STEP #3: Calculate Valve Characteristic

VALVE CHARACTERISTICS
Equal percentage characteristics produce an equal
percentage change in flow for each equal increment of
travel. Change in flow rate is proportional to the flow rate
just before a change in valve plug, disc, or ball position.
Equal percentage characteristic is common where the
system itself absorbs a large percentage of the pressure
drop, such as pressure control applications.
Used in processes where a small percentage of the total
pressure
drop
is
permitted
by
the
valve.
Used in temperature and pressure control loops

VALVE CHARACTERISTICS
Linear characteristics provide a flow rate directly
proportional to travel. This proportional relationship
produces a constant slope that yields a constant
valve gain with a constant pressure drop.
Linear characteristics are commonly specified for
liquid-level and flow-control applications.
Used in liquid level or flow loops
Used in systems where the pressure drop across the
valve is expected to remain fairly constant (ie. steady
state systems)

VALVE CHARACTERISTICS
Quick opening characteristics permit about 70% of a
control valves capacity to be obtained in the first 40% of
travel. Quick opening characteristics are frequently found
in relief valve applications.
Used for processes where "instantly" large flow is needed
(ie. safety systems or cooling water systems)
MODIFIED PARABOLIC: A FLOW CHARACTERISTIC that
lies somewhere between LINEAR and EQUAL % .It provides
fine throttling at low flow capacity and an approximately
linear characteristic at higher flow capacities.

INSTALLED CHARACTERISTICS
IT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FLOW THROUGH THE
VALVE AND VALVE ASSEMBLY INPUT WHEN INSTALLED IN
THE SYSTEM. THE OBJECTIVE IS TO HAVE LINELARISED
INSTALLED CHARACTERISTICS.
INHERENT CHARACTERISTICS OF A VALVE IS THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN VALVE FLOW CAPACITY AND THE VALVE TRAVEL
WHEN THE DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE ACROSS THE VALVE IS HELD
CONSTANT. SO UNDER SPECIFIC CONDITION VALVE FLOW IS
ONLY FUNCTION OF VALVE TRAVEL.
INSTALLED CHARACTERISTICS IS THE FLOW VS. PERCENT
OPEN CURVE CHANGES DUE TO THE HEAD LOSS IN THE
PIPING

INSTALLED CHARACTERISTICS
The installed characteristic differs from the inherent.
A valve with an equal percentage characteristic will exhibit a
more linear flow curve when installed because of the
reduction in pressure drop available across the valve. This
makes the characteristic curve flatter.
Linear installed characteristics are desirable because they
provide constant gain regardless of valve opening, making
the loop easier to tune and improving control performance.
A valve with a linear inherent curve may change to quickopening characteristic when installed

INSTALLED CHARACTERISTICS
In real life situations, the valve is installed in a pipework
configuration where the differential pressure across the valve
can vary as the flow through the valve changes.
Therefore where the differential pressure across the valve is
free to change, the installed valve characteristic is far from
linear. To counteract this, the valve manufacturers offer a
characteristic called "equal percentage", where the percentage
increase in stem position equals the percentage increase in flow.

INSTALLED CHARACTERISTICS
Why is linearity important? The answer lies in the fact that
the tuning of the controller's P term is largely dependent on
the process gain. If the process has not got installed linearity,
then this would mean that the tuning would only be good at
the one place on the measuring range where the particular
process gain was used in the tuning calculation. At other
places where the process gain was smaller, the control
response would be more sluggish, and where it was bigger,
the response would be faster and more cyclic, and could in
fact even become unstable.

INSTALLED CHARACTERISTICS
People are very often confused as to why one doesn't always
just use an inherent linear characteristic; after all the graph
shows a straight line relationship between flow through the
valve, and valve stem position.
One must understand how the inherent characteristics are
generated. The test performed by the manufacturer to generate
the curve is accomplished by placing the valve in a flow rig
which is so arranged that the valve has got a completely
constant differential pressure across it at all times.

VALVE SIZING EXAMPLE

STEP #1: Specify Process Data
The system is pumping water from one tank to another
through a piping system.

Total System Pressure drop is 150 psi.

Temperature of water 70 0F.
Maximum flowrate of 150 gpm,
Operating flowrate of 110 gpm,
Minimum flowrate of 25 gpm.
The pipe diameter is 3 inches.
Specific gravity of 1.0.

Key Variables: Total pressure drop, design flow,

operating flow, minimum flow, pipe diameter, specific
gravity.

VALVE SIZING EXAMPLE

For our system
Cv= 150

( 1/15) :::: This gives a Cv of 39.

At this point DONOT TEMPT to go to valve chart and select

you final Cv. LOT MORE TO SEE FURTHER;
STEP # 4: Preliminary valve selection
NEVER USE A VALVE THAT IS LESS THAN TWO TIMES THE PIPE
SIZE
AVOID USING THE LOWER 10% AND UPPER 20% OF THE VALVE
STROKE. THE VALVE IS MUCH EASIER TO CONTROL IN THE 1080% STROKE RANGE.
THIS ISSUE IS RANGEBILITY OF VALVE ( DISCUSS ED LATER )
NOW SELECT THE VALVE CHARACTRSTICS

VALVE SIZING EXAMPLE

Let us assume we have equal percentage valve so when
we compare our Cv Table, it seems that 2 valve will
work fine. Notice that we're not trying to squeeze our
Cv into the 1 1/2 valve which would need to be at
100% stroke to handle our maximum flow. If this
valve were used, two consequences would be
experienced:
The pressure drop would be a little higher than 15
psi at our design (max) flow.
The valve would be difficult to control at maximum
flow. Also, there would be no room for error with this
valve.

VALVE SIZING EXAMPLE

Valve Size

Max Travel
mm

Valve Opening ( % of Total Travel)

DN
DN25
DN 40
DN 50
DN 65
DN 80

Cv
19
19
29
38
38

10
0.783
1.52
1.66
3.43
4.32

30
2.20
3.87
4.66
10.8
10.9

70
7.83
17.4
25.4
49.2
66.0

100
17.2
35.8
59.7
99.4
136

FL
0.88
0.84
0.85
0.84
0.82

VALVE SIZING EXAMPLE

STEP #5: Check the Cv and stroke percentage at
the minimum flow
If the stroke percentage falls below 10% at our minimum
flow, a smaller valve may have to be used in some cases.

Judgements plays role in many cases.

For example, in our system more likely to operate closer
to the maximum flowrates more often than the minimum
flowrates? Or is it more likely to operate near the
minimum flowrate for extended periods of time. It's
difficult to find the perfect valve, but you should find one
that operates well most of the time. Let's check the valve
we've selected for our system:

VALVE SIZING EXAMPLE

At a minimum flow of 25 gpm, valve Cv is 6.5
We see that a Cv of 6.5 would correspond to a stroke
percentage of around 35-40% which is certainly acceptable.
Notice that we used the maximum pressure drop of 15 psi
once again in our calculation. Although the pressure drop
across the valve will be lower at smaller flowrates, using the
maximum value gives us a "worst case" scenario.
If our Cv at the minimum flow would have been around 1.5,
there would not really be a problem because the valve has a
Cv of 1.66 at 10% stroke and since we use the maximum
pressure drop, our estimate is conservative.

VALVE SIZING EXAMPLE

STEP #6 : Check the gain across applicable
Flowrates
GAIN = FLOW/ STROKE
Now, at our three flowrates:
Qmin = 25 gpm
Qop = 110 gpm
Qdes = 150 gpm
we have corresponding Cv values of 6.5, 28, and 39. The
corresponding stroke percentages are 35%, 73%, and 85%
respectively. Now we construct the following table:
VALVE SELECTED IS 2 INCH GLOBE VALVE WITH
EQUAL PERCENTAGE.

GAIN = FLOW/ STROKE

Flow (gpm)

25
110
150

Stroke Change in flow

(%)
(gpm)

35
73
85

Change in Stroke (%)

110-25 = 85

73-35 = 38

150-110 = 40

85-73 = 12

GAIN # 1 = 85/38 = 2.2

Gain #2 = 40/12 = 3.3
The difference between these values should be less than
50% of the higher value. . Also note that the gain should
never be less than 0.50.

Liquid Phenomena in Valves

CHOKED

FLOW
CAVITATION
FLASHING
NOISE

IN THE FOLLOWING SLIDES WE WILL SEE HOW

THESE AFFECT OUR VALVE SIZING.

VENA CONTRACTA DIAGRAM

FLOW AREA OF LIQUISD IS AT MINIMUM AND VELOCITY AT

MAXIMUM. THE LOCATION OF VENA CONTRACTA VARY WITH
PROCESS CONDITION.

CHOKED FLOW
Here pressure at Vena Contracta decreases. So with the
increase of differential pressure, vena contracta
pressure keeps on decreasing and may attain a value
which is lower than vapor pressure.
At this point, liquid becomes unstable and may vaporize.
So there is two phase flow at this point and fluid is no
longer Incompressible.

CHOKED FLOW
Let us see the behavior of gas application. In gas flow,
when the fluid velocity is equal to the speed of sound in
the fluid, it becomes critical and CHOKED condition
exists. Incompressible fluid have very high sound
speed so practically they don't choke whereas the
mixture have very low sound speed so the CHOKING
may occur.

Q
Cv

P
Actual Flow

Predicted Flow

Q
max dp

actual dp

Choked flow

CONTROL VALVE BEHAVIOUR

The choked flow is related to the term FL value
found on the valve chart.
This must be checked for vastly different maximum
and minimum flowrates. For example if the
difference between the maximum and minimum
flows is above 90% of the maximum flow,
MUST CHECK THE CHOKED FLOW CONDITION.

The Constants Plays a Vital Role

Ar = Trim Application Ratio
Kc = Cavitation Index
Km = Pressure Recovery Coefficient = FL2
Fp = Piping Correction Factor
rc = Critical Pressure Ratio = FF
Km = P1-P2/ P1-Pvc
Pvc = rc *Pv

CHOKED FLOW

THE MAXIMUM DROP A VALVE CAN TOLERATE AT

SHUT-OFF OR AT PARTIAL OPEN/ CLOSE POSITION.

THE CHOKED FLOW CONDITION IS RELATED TO

Maximum allowable Sizing Pressure Drop
The FORMULA TO DETERMINE IS AS FOLLOW:

P max = FL2 ( P1- FF * PV )

Where FF= Liquid Critical Pressure Ratio Factor
FF = 0.96-0.28 ( PV /PC)*0.5

CHOKED FLOW...

EXAMPLE
P1= 43.5, P2= 13.8, Q= 21160 kg/hr, Pv = 0.0827 bar
The Value of FL ( Valve Recovery Factor) is 0.9 for single/double
seated valves, 0.74 for butterfly valves and 0.6 for plug/ball
valves
The above equation results as P max = 41.7 bar. The actual P is
43.5- 13.8 = 29.7 bar

CHOKED FLOW...
HERE P max IS MORE THAN ACTUAL P
BUT IF IF P max IS LESS THAN P, IT IS AN INDICATION
THAT CHOKED FLOW CONDITION WILL EXIST UNDER
THIS SERVICE CONDITION.
TAKE AN EXAMPLE FOR PROCESS CONDITION: ( Cond. Reject to Tank)

P1= 17.0, P2= 2.1, Q1= 9430 kg/hr, T= 50 deg C Q1= 9340 Cv= 2.8
Pv =0.124 bar, Pc= 221 bar, P1-P2= 14.9 bar
Q2= 27270, Cv= 8.6
USING THE FORMULA:
P max = FL2 ( P1- FF * PV ) = 13.37 bar
3 Valve, Cv= 12.5
Here P max is LESS THAN P WHICH IS CLEAR
INDICATION OF CHOKED FLOW

CHOKED FLOW...
SO UNDER CHOKED FLOW CONDITION, Cv OF A
CONTROL VALVE MUST BE SELECTED BASED ON
MAX P CALCULATED .
CALCULAT THE FLOW WITH MAX. PRESS DROP .
THIS WILL RESULT IN CHOKED FLOW RATE.
IF CHOKED FLOW RATE IS LESS THAN SERVICE
FLOW,
ALERT:

THE VALVE IS UNDERSIZED

GO FOR NEXT SIZE OF VALVE

CAVITATION IN CONTROL VALVES

WHAT IS CAVITATION ?
It is a fluid phenomenon rising from a liquid to gas to liquid
phase change. This phase change occurs when fluids are
throttled through control valves.

Cavitation damage occurs when the downstream pressure of

the valve rises back above the vapor pressure.

Since the vapor bubble mass has a larger volume than the
equivalent liquid mass, the bubble implodes from a larger to
smaller volume .
A correctly chosen control valve can prevent cavitation.

Press. Charact. Within a CV

P1

VENA CONTRACTA
NORMAL

CAVITATION

Pv
Pvc
FLASHING

CAVITATION AND FLASHING

Flashing and cavitation represent an actual change of the
flowing media from liquid to vapor and result from an
increase in fluid velocity.
As the liquid passes through the restriction the velocity
increase is accompanied by a substantial decrease in
pressure at the vena contracta.
As the fluid stream expands further downstream velocity
decreases and pressure increases, but not to the original
pressure. The pressure differential that exists between P1
and P2 is the amount of energy dissipated in the valve.
When the pressure vena contracta drops below the vapor
pressure of the fluid, bubbles form.

CAVITATION AND FLASHING

At this stage there is no difference between FLASHING
and CAVITATION, but the potential for structural
damage to the valve exists. If the pressure at the valve
outlet (P2) remains below the vapor pressure of the
liquid, the bubbles remain in the downstream system
and the process is said to have "flashed."
Aside from physical damage due to flashing or
cavitation, formation of vapor bubbles in the liquid
causes a "CROWDING" condition at the vena contracta
that limits or chokes the flow through the valve.

CAVITATION AND FLASHING

If downstream pressure recovery is sufficient to raise
the outlet (P2) pressure above the vapor pressure of
the liquid, the bubbles collapse or implode to produce
cavitation. When vapor bubbles collapse energy is
released with noise. When bubbles collapse close to
the solid surfaces in the valve, the released energy
tears away material leaving a rough surface.

CAVITATION IN CONTROL VALVES

WHAT ARE THE EFFECTS OF CAVITATION ?

MATERIAL DAMAGE
Mechanical Attack : Erosion resulting from high velocity
microjets impinging on material surface
Chemical Attack : Material deformation and failure resulting
from shock waves impinging on the
material surface

NOISE

CAVITATION INDEX
Cavitation Sizing Coefficient: ( Kc)
THIS IS THE VALUE USED TO DETERMINE THE
PRESSURE DROP AT WHICH CAVITATION WILL BEGIN
TO OCCUR . THIS IS INFLUENCED BY MANY FACTORS
AND PRIMARY INDICATOR OF VALVE PERFORMANCE
IN CAVITATING SERVICE.
This can be expressed in terms of Km value. Kc = 0.67 Km
Sigma () = (P2-Pv)/ (P1-P2)
Ratio of Potential for resisting Cavity formation to the potential
for causing Cavity formation.

CAVITATION INDEX
CHOKED CAVITATION INDEX
OPERATING CAVITATION INDEX
DAMAGE CAVITATION INDEX
One Example :
() = (56-.05) /( 200-56) = 0.38 This is Choked Index
The damage () of this valve is 0.73
On different operating condition
()= (200-0.5)/ (500-200) = 0.67
This value is > than choked value, the valve is not choking but it
is less than damage value so Cavitation may happen.

HOW TO AVOID CAVITATION

Torturous Path It lowers the amount of pressure recovery

Pressure Drop Staging Valve takes a large pressure differential and yet maintain vena
contracta pressure above the vapor pressure of the liquid

Expanding Flow Area Area of each restriction is larger than the previous restriction.
The first restriction takes the bulk of the pressure drop and the
pressure drop in the successive section decreases. In the last
restriction, where cavitation is most likely to occur the
pressure drop is only a small percentage of the total drop and
hence pressure recovery is substantially lowered

HOW TO AVOID CAVITATION

Charecterized Cages For application where pressure drop decreases as the flow
rate increases, charecterized cages can be used.

Separating Seating and Throttling Locations For application where both cavitation control and tight shut off
is required. The seating surface of the plug is upstream of the
throttling location and the upper cage is designed such that it
takes very little pressure drop. Hence, the seating surface
experiences relative low flow velocities .
Softer seating material is used relative to the plug in order to
provide Class VI shut off.

ANTI CAVITATION VALVES

VARABLE RESISTANCE TRIM

STEPPED TRIM

A Typical Example of Cavitation

Flow kg/hr 368000

185000

126600

P1 bar

3.2

3.2

3.2

P2 bar

1.416

1.316

1.316

317

155

104

Open BF

55

41

34

Result
Noise
0
Open VB
Noise

Ar>Kc
88 dB
49
82 dB

Ar>Kc
84 dB
34
75 dB

Ar>Kc
80 dB
30
75 dB

Valve Cv
0

A Typical Example of Cavitation

This butterfly valve is cavitating. Optionally V ball valve will void
this problem as ball valves have higher Cavitation index. Other
option is to aspirated spool piece or move the valve at a location
to increase the back pressure.
TYPE

TRIM

SIZE

Kc

Butterfly

All

All

0.5 Km

V Ball

Trim 1/ 2
Trim 3
Hard Mat.
Microform

All
2- 8
All
All

Km
1.0
1.0
0.85 Km

Globe
Globe

The Km value is used to predict the flow rate at choked flow

condition whereas Kc predicts the point where Cavitation will
occur.

CAVITATION INDEX
Cavitation Sizing Coefficient: ( Kc)
THIS IS THE VALUE USED TO DETERMINE THE
PRESSURE DROP AT WHICH CAVITATION WILL BEGIN
TO OCCUR . THIS IS INFLUENCED BY MANY FACTORS
AND PRIMARY INDICATOR OF VALVE PERFORMANCE
IN CAVITATING SERVICE.
This can be expressed in terms of Km value. Kc = 0.67 Km

CAVITATION INDEX
TYPE

TRIM

SIZE

Kc

Butterfly

All

All

0.5 Km

V Ball

Trim 1/ 2
Trim 3

All
2- 8

Km
1.0

Globe
Globe

Hard Mat. All

Microform All

1.0
0.85 Km

RECOVERY FACTOR
Given two valves with equal flow area and passing same
flow, High recovery valve will produce less pressure drop
than low recovery valve. The critical pressure drop ratio
(P/ P1) for High Recovery will be much less than Low
Recovery Valve
Globe valve typically exhibits a critical flow at a pressure
drop ratio of 0.5 while High Recovery valve as value as
low as 0.15
The recovery factor of a high recovery valve will vary
with its plug travel.

LOW RECOVERY VALVE

LOW RECOVERY VALVE: A valve design that dissipates
a considerable amount of flow stream energy due to
turbulence created by the contours of the flow path.
Consequently, pressure downstream of the valve VENA
CONTRACTA recovers to a lesser percentage of its inlet
value than a valve with a more streamlined flow path. The
conventional GLOBE STYLE control valve is in this
category.

The recovery factor does not vary with travel to any

significant degree.

HIGH RECOVERY VALVE

High and Low recovery refers to valve ability to convert velocity
at the Vena Contracta back into pressure downstream of valve.
A LOW RECOVERY VALVE REQUIRES MORE PRESSURE DROP
TO PASS THE SAME FLOW THAN HIGH RECOVERY VALVE.

HIGH RECOVERY VALVE: A valve design that dissipates

relatively little flow stream energy due to streamlined internal
contours and minimal flow turbulence. Therefore, pressure
down stream of the valve VENA CONTRACTA recovers to a
high percentage of its inlet value. These types of valves are
identifiable by their straight-through flow paths. Examples are
most rotary control valves, such as the eccentric plug, butterfly,
and ball valve.

Pressure Recovery Factor

The graph below represents actual test data of a butterfly valve
showing change in recovery factor with plug rotation. The data
demonstrate why a rotary control valve can suddenly go into
Cavitation as the valve opens up.

FLASHING IN CONTROL VALVES

A fluid is said to flash when the downstream pressure
of the fluid is less than its vapor pressure.
The vapor bubbles that are formed when the pressure
falls below the vapor pressure continue to grow and
eventually the liquid liquid flashes to a vapor.
Flashing is dependent solely on the relationship of the
downstream pressure ( P2 ) and the fluid vapor pressure
( Pv ). The relationship is [ P2 < Pv ]. It is independent
of valve type, style, or recovery characteristic. There are
no trim geometries available to eliminate flashing.

FLASHING IN CONTROL VALVES

Hardware choices for flashing application

Valve Design :
It does not prevent flashing but reduces the impact of
flashing.
Angle Valve with standard trim
Flashing damage occurs by high velocity vapor bubbles
impinging the surface of a valve which erodes the
surface.
Angle valve reduces the amount of vapor bubbles that
impinge on the wall by directing the flow stream to the
centre of the pipe and not in the valve body.

FLASHING IN CONTROL VALVES

System Design :
25 Feet

Condenser

1 Foot

Condenser

Fig 1

Fig 2
Fig 1 :
Flashing will occur in the downstream pipe between the control
valve and the condenser. Any damage that occurs will do so in
that area.

Fig 2 :
Flashing will occur downstream of the valve and in the
condenser . Since condenser has a much larger volume compared
to the pipe, high velocity impingement on a material surface will
not occur since there is no essentially material surface.

FLASHING IN CONTROL VALVES

Examples are boiler feed water pump recirculation,
condensate pump recirculation, and heater drain
lines, many of which discharge into the main
condenser. Problems encountered include severe
vibration due to flow and pressure pulsation in the
valve discharge piping with consequent damage to
the control valve and/or piping system, and
condenser internals.
The pressure pulsation or shock waves are the
result of liquid flashing, liquid separation or a
combination of these two events.

FLASHING IN CONTROL VALVES

Figures 1 and 2 indicate a typical pump recirculation or
heater drain flow control system and the pressure
gradient resulting from flashing due to a sudden
pressure drop of the liquid below its vapor pressure
due to a negligible downstream backpressure.
If a backpressure device is placed at the condenser
inlet to maintain P2 above the vapor pressure, the
resultant pressure gradient will appear as Figure 3.

Note that Pv is the same as in FIG. 2 but P2 is higher than in

FIG. 2.
Figures 2 and 3 typify systems where the liquid vapor
pressure is raised above P5, which in this case is the
condenser pressure.
The case of a condensate pump recirculation system, the
vapor pressure of the liquid is essentially the same as the
condenser pressure. The energy remaining in the liquid after
passing through the control valve is then dissipated within
the downstream piping system where little or no back
pressure exists, or within the condenser if backpressure is
provided.

Figure 4 also depicts the pressure gradient in this type

system where backpressure is or is not provided.

PROCESS CONDITIONS
Primary process variables in valve selection are pressure and
temperature. We normally look at operating pressure (OP) and
operating temperature (OT) which is the highest pressure and
temperature under any expected operating conditions and design
pressure (DP) and design temperature (DT) which has some
margin above the operating conditions.
A common error regarding design pressure is to use the pump
design point head instead of the shut-off head.
When calculating the margin, consideration should be given to the
likelihood of upward excursions or any uncertainty in the values
used for design.

PROCESS CONDITIONS
kg/hr per Difference
Revised
data in two
kg/hr
sheet flows
39,840 36,320
3,520
199,200 181,600
17,600
397,200 363,200
34,000
593,400 544,800
48,600
SP. Gr was taken as 0.908

P1

P2

Sp Gr

21.0

0.34

28.5

0.996

21.0

0.34

28.5

0.996

20.9

0.364

37.4

0.993

20.8

0.402

46.77

0.989

RANGEBILITY ISSUE
4" valve in 6 line Emergency hotwell make-up.

CASE-1

2" valve in 3 Normal hotwell make-up.

FLOW

P1

P2

Cv

% Travel

5,994
11,928
29,700

8.5
8.5
8.4

0.340
0.360
0.402

2.7
5.5
13.6

38
57
81

FLOW

P1

P2

Cv

% Travel

24,975
139,300
168,300

8.5
7.0
6.5

0.340
0.360
0.402

11
70
87

30
73
81

CASE-2

Min
Travel
5% to
Max
Travel
80%

Valve Terminology
TURNDOWN: A term used to describe the ratio between the
minimum and maximum flow conditions seen in a particular system.
Example: If the minimum flow were 10 G.P.M. and the maximum flow
were 100 G.P.M. the turndown would be 10:1. This term is sometimes
incorrectly applied to valves. See RANGEABILITY.

TRIM: Includes all the parts that are in flowing contact with the
process fluid except the body, BONNET, and body flanges and
gaskets. The plug, seats, stem, guides, bushings, and cage are some
of the parts included in the term trim.

EXTENSION BONNET: A bonnet with a packing box that is

extended above the body to bonnet connection so as to maintain
the temperature of the packing above (cryogenic service) or below
(high-temp service) the temperature of the process fluid. The
length of the extension depends on the amount of temperature
differential that exists between the process fluid and the packing
design temperature.

Valve Terminology
RANGEABILITY: The range over which a control valve can
control. It is the ratio of the maximum to minimum controllable
FLOW COEFFICIENTS. This is also called TURNDOWN although
technically it is not the same thing. There are two types of
rangeability - inherent and installed. Inherent rangeability is a
property of the valve alone and may be defined as the range of flow
coefficients between which the gain of the valve does not deviate
from a specified gain by some stated tolerance limit. Installed
rangeability is the range within which the deviation from a desired
INSTALLED FLOW CHARACTERISTIC does not exceed some stated
tolerance limit.

BENCH SET: The proper definition for bench set is the

INHERENT DIAPHRAGM PRESSURE RANGE, which is the
high and low values of pressure applied to the diaphragm to
produce rated valve plug travel with atmospheric pressure in
the valve body. This test is often performed on a work bench in
the instrument shop prior to placing the valve into service and
is thus known as Bench Set.
BONNET: The bonnet or bonnet assembly is that portion of the
valve pressure retaining boundary which may guide the stem
and contains the PACKING BOX and STEM SEAL. The
bonnet may be integral to the valve body or bolted or screwed.
The bonnet, if it is detachable, will generally provide the
opening to the valve body cavity for removal and replacement of
the internal TRIM. The bonnet is generally the means by which
the actuator is connected to the valve body.

Valve Terminology
CAGE: A hollow cylindrical trim element that is sometimes
used as a guide to align the movement of a VALVE PLUG
with a SEAT RING. It may also act to retain the seat ring
in the valve body. On some types of valves, the cage may
contain different shaped openings which act to characterise
the flow through the valve. The cage may also act as a
NOISE ATTENUATION or ANTI-CAVITATION device.

Valve Terminology
REDUCED TRIM: It is an undersized orifice. Reduced or
restricted capacity trim is used for several reasons.
(1) It adapts a valve large enough to handle increased future
flow requirement with trim capacity properly sized for present
needs.
(2) A valve with adequate structural strength can be selected
and still retain reasonable travel vs. capacity relationships.
(3) A valve with a large body using restricted trim can be used
to reduce inlet and outlet fluid velocities.
(4) It can eliminate the need for pipe reducers.
(5) Errors in over sizing can be corrected by use of restricted
capacity trim.

Valve Terminology
EFFECTIVE AREA: For a DIAPHRAGM ACTUATOR, the effective area
is that part of the diaphragm area that is effective in producing a
stem force. Usually the effective area will change as the valve is
stroked - being at a maximum at the start and at a minimum at the
end of the travel range. Flat sheet diaphragms are most affected by
this; while moulded diaphragms will improve the actuator
performance, and a rolling diaphragm will provide a constant stem
force throughout the entire stroke of the valve.
LANTERN RING: A rigid spacer used in the packing with packing
above and below it. The lantern ring is used to allow lubrication to
the packing or allow access to a leak off connection. On some of the
new fugitive emission packing systems, it also acts as a stem guide.

Valve Terminology
PUSH-DOWN-TO-CLOSE: A term used to describe a
LINEAR or GLOBE STYLE valve that uses a DIRECT
ACTING plug and stem arrangement. The plug is located
above the seat ring. When the plug is pushed down, the plug
contacts the seat, and the valve closes. Note! Most control
valves are of this type.
PUSH-DOWN-TO-OPEN: A term used to describe a
LINEAR or GLOBE STYLE valve that uses a REVERSE
ACTION plug and stem arrangement. The plug is located
below the seat ring. When the plug is pushed down, the plug
moves away from the seat, and the valve opens

VALVE ACTION

The action of a valve is generally defined as either air to close or

airtoopen. These terms signify that an increase in air pressure
acting over the effective area of the diaphragm will either close
or open the valve, depending upon the type of actuator used and
the plug to seatring relationship.

POSITIONERS
A positioner is a device, pneumatic, electro-pneumatic or digital,
which, by using a control signal precisely positions the moving parts
of a control valve in accordance with the signal value.

Positioners may be used for the following reasons:

Permit greater accuracy & process control
Maintain position regardless of changing forces
Handle high air pressures ,
Increase speed of operation
Permit faster speed of response
Change characteristics
Provide simple adjustments including split ranging

DIRECT ACTING POSITIONER

INPUT INCREASES
OUTPUT INCREASES

INPUT DECREASES
OUTPUT DECREASES
EQUALS

EQUALS
Increasing Signal
From Controller

Decreasing Signal
From Controller

Increasing
Output From Positioner

Decreasing
Output From Positioner

REVERSE ACTING POSITIONER

INPUT INCREASES
OUTPUT DECREASES

INPUT DECREASES
OUTPUT INCREASES
EQUALS

EQUALS
Increasing Signal
From Controller

Decreasing Signal
From Controller

Decreasing
Output From Positioner

Increasing
Output From Positioner

Control Valve Packing

Packing is a sealing system which normally consists of a deformable
material such as TFE, graphite, asbestos, etc. Usually the material is
in the form of solid or split rings contained in a packing box.
Packing material is compressed to provide an effective pressure seal
between the fluid in the valve body and the outside atmosphere. At one
time it was believed that the more packing you had in a control valve
the better it would seal.

Since FUGITIVE EMISSIONS has become a concern, extensive

studies have been made which have shown that better sealing can
be obtained by minimising the number of packing rings

Control Valve Packing

In majority of the valves., the valve pressure boundary is penetrated
in order to provide the required movement to its main sealing
components. This requirement necessitates a need for an external
secondary sealing system to prevent the loss of the pressurized
fluid at the point of penetration of the valve pressure boundary. This
secondary sealing is achieved by a set of packing rings packed
around the valve stem in the valve's stuffing box, also called the
packing chamber.
Valve packing provides a positive and reliable sealing barrier
between the system fluid in the valve's pressure boundary and the
outside atmosphere and yet makes the actuation of the valve
internals possible from a point external to the valve pressure
boundary.

Control Valve Packing

Stem: A shaft like component directly attached to the main sealing part
(e.g., wedge or disc) of the valve. The stem of the valve passes
through the stuffing box and externally actuates the sealing parts of
the valve.
Stuffing Box: Also called a packing chamber, is a machined cavity in
the valve bonnet or other pressure retaining part through which the
valve's actuating shaft (stem) penetrates in to the valve pressure
boundary. This cavity houses the packing rings.
Lantern Ring: A lantern ring is a spacer between the two sets of gland
packing. It is generally relieved in the middle to provide a void to
collect the fluid leaks through the lower set of packing rings. Lantern
rings are used on valve stuffing boxes where stem leakage detection is
desirable. In case of smaller size valves and large valves not requiring
stem leakage detection, lantern rings are omitted from their stuffing
boxes. These valves employ a single set of gland packing.

Control Valve Packing

Leak-Off Connections A pipe or tube hook up to detect leaks through
the lower set of packing rings. One end of this pipe or tubing is
connected to the lantern ring installed in the valve stuffing box and the
other and drains off in a remote holding tank. In most smaller valves
and others where no lantern rings are installed, the leak-off connection
is provided in the middle of the stuffing box/packing chamber if a
specific valve application requires monitoring of leaks through the
valve stem.

Spring-Loaded Packing
Dual Packing
Dual Packing With Leak-Off
Connection

Seat Leakage Classifications

Rule of Thumb ; There is no such thing as "Bubble Tight."
Control valves are designed to throttle. However, this is
not a perfect world, and control valves are also usually
expected to provide some type of shut-off capability. A
control valve's ability to shut off has to do with many
factors. The type of valves for instance. A double-seated
control valve will usually have very poor shut-off
capability. The guiding, seat material, actuator thrust,
pressure drop, and the type of fluid can all play a part in
how well a particular control valve shuts off.

Seat Leakage Classifications

There are actually six different seat leakage classifications as
defined by ANSI/FCI 70-2-1976. But for the most part you will be
concerned with just two of them:
CLASS IV and CLASS VI.
CLASS IV is also known as METAL TO METAL. It is the kind of
leakage rate you can expect from a valve with a metal plug and
metal seat.
CLASS VI is known as a SOFT SEAT classification. SOFT SEAT
VALVES are those where either the plug or seat or both are made
from some kind of composition material such as Teflon.

Seat Leakage Classifications

Class I. Identical to Class II, III, and IV in construction and
design intent, but no actual shop test is made.
Class II. Intended for double-port or balanced singe-port
valves with a metal piston ring seal and metal-to-metal seats.
Air or water at 45 to 60 psig is the test fluid. Allowable leakage
is 0.5% of the rated full open capacity.
Class III. Intended for the same types of valves as in Class II.
Allowable leakage is limited to 0.1% of rated valve capacity.

Seat Leakage Classifications

Class IV. Intended for single-port and balanced single-port
valves with extra-tight piston seals and metal-to-metal seats.
Leakage rate is limited to 0.01% of rated valve capacity.
Class V. Intended for the same types of valves as Class IV.
The test fluid is water at 100 psig or operating pressure.
Leakage allowed is limited to 5 X 10 ml per minute per inch
of orifice diameter per psi differential.
Class VI. Intended for resilient-seating valves. The test fluid is
air or nitrogen. Pressure is the lesser of 50 psig or operating
pressure. The leakage limit depends on valve size and ranges
from 0.15 to 6.75 ml per minute for valve sizes 1 through 8
inches.

Seat Leakage Classifications

Class VI Leakage Allowance

Nominal Port Diameter (inch) Leak Rate (ml/minute)
1.5
2
2.5
3
4
6
8

0.30 (2 Bubble/Minute)
0.45 (3 Bubble/Minute)
0.60 (4 Bubble/Minute)
0.90 (6 Bubble/Minute)
1.70 (11 Bubble/Minute)
4.00 (27 Bubble/Minute)
6.75 (45 Bubble/ Minute)

Bubbles per minute are based on inch X 0.032 inch wall tube
Submerged in water to a depth of 1/8 inch to inch.

THANKYOU

ANY QUESTIONS
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