Basics Of Networking

Created By Ashish Lohia

What is a Computer Network?
A network is a collection of computers, printers, routers, switches, and other
devices that are able to communicate with each other over some
transmission media.

Types of Networks
 
There are two basic types of networks currently in existence:
A Local Area Network (LAN)

A Wide Area Network (WAN)

Local Area
Networks A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computers and
(LAN) network communication devices within a limited geographic
area, such as an office building. No third party involvement here.
They are characterized by the following:
• High data transfer speeds
• Generally less expensive technologies
• Limited geographic area

Wide Area
Networks
(WAN) A Wide Area Network (WAN) interconnects LANs.  It is not
restricted to a particular geographic area and may be
interconnected around the world. Third party network is involved.
They are characterized by the following:
• Multiple interconnected LANs
• Generally more expensive technology
• More sophisticated to implement than LANs
• Exist in an unlimited geographic area
• Less error resistance due to transmission travel distances
Common LAN Topologies
Bus Architecture In a bus topology:
• a single cable connects each
workstation in a linear, daisy-chained
fashion.
  •signals are broadcasted to all
stations, but stations only act on the
frames addressed to them.

Ring Architecture
•In a ring topology:

•Unidirectional links connect the

transmit side of one device to the
receive side of another device.
•Devices transmit frames to the next
device (downstream member) in the
ring.
Star Topology

In a star topology, each station is connected to a central

hub or concentrator that functions as a multi-port
repeater. Each station broadcasts to all of the devices
connected to the hub. Physical LAN topologies are
usually characterized as either bus or ring.
LAN Transmission Methods
 
LAN transmission methods fall into 3 main categories:
• Unicast transmission
• Multicast transmission
• Broadcast transmission

Unicast Transmission
In unicast transmissions, a single data packet is sent from a source to a
single destination on the network.

Unicast Process

• The source addresses

the packet with the
destination address.
• The packet is sent into
the network.
• The network delivers the
packet to the destination.
Multicast Transmission
 
In multicast transmissions, a single data packet is copied and sent to
specific destinations on the network

Multicast Process

• The source addresses the packet

using a multicast address.
• The packet is sent into the
network.
• The network copies the packet.
• A copy is delivered to each
destination that is included in the
multicast address.

Broadcast Tranmission
In multicast transmissions, a single data packet is copied and sent to
specific destinations on the network
Broadcast Process

• The source addresses the packet with the broadcast address.

• The packet is sent into the network.
• The network copies the packet.
• The packet copies are delivered to all destinations on the
network.
LAN Infrastructure Devices
 

There are numerous devices associated with data

information flow across a LAN.  When adjoined, they create
the infrastructure of a functional LAN.  These devices
include:

Repeaters

Bridges

Hubs

Switches

Routers
Repeaters
Repeaters, located within the physical layer of a network, regenerate and
propagate signals from one to another. They do not change any information
being transmitted, and they cannot filter any information. Repeaters help to
extend the distances of networks by boosting weak signals.
Bridges
Bridges are intelligent repeaters. They regenerate
transmitted signals, but unlike repeaters, they can also
determine destinations.

Hubs Hubs connect all computer LAN connections into one

device. They are nothing more than multiport repeaters.
Hubs cannot determine destinations; they merely
transmit to every line attached in a half-duplex mode.

Routers Routers are a step up from bridges. They are able to

route and filter information to different networks. Some
routers can automatically detect problems and redirect
information around the problem area. These are called
"intelligent routers."
Switches
Switches connect all computer LAN connections, the
same as hubs do. The difference is that switches can run
in full-duplex mode and are able to direct and filter
information to and from specific destinations.

WAN
WAN Infrastructure
 
As with LANs, there are numerous devices associated with data information
flow across a WAN. Together, these devices create the infrastructure of a
functional WAN. These devices include:
•Router
•ATM Switch
•Modem and CSU/DSU
•Communication Server
•Multiplexer
•X.25/Frame Relay Switches
ATM Switches
 
ATM Switches provide high-speed transfer
between both LANs and WANs.

Modem (modulator / demodulator)

Modems convert digital and analog signals. At the source, modems convert
digital signals to a form suitable for transmission over analog communication
facilities (public telephone lines). At the destination, modems convert the signal
back to a digital format.
CSU/DSU (Channel Service Unit / Data Service Unit)
CSUs/DSUs are similar to modems, however they send data in digital format
across digital telephone loops. They are usually in a physical box, but they may
come in two separate units: CSUs or DSUs.
Multiplexers

A Multiplexer combines multiple signals for

transmission over a single circuit. This allows
for the transfer of various data simultaneously,
such as video, sound, text, etc.

Communication Servers
 
Communication Servers are typically dial in/out servers that allow users
to dial in from remote locations and attach to the LAN.

X.25 / Frame Relay Switches

 

X.25 and Frame Relay Switches connect private data over public data circuits
using digital signal. These units are very similar to ATM switches, but the
transfer rate of data is not comparable.
Local Area Network Cabling
 

The earliest LANs used coaxial cables. Over time, the

twisted pair cables used in telephone systems were
improved to carry higher frequencies and support LAN
traffic. More recently, fiber optic cables have emerged as a
high-speed cabling option.
Local Area Networks use four types of cables:

Coaxial

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Fiber Optic
Coaxial Cables
  A coaxial cable consists of:
a single copper conductor
a layer of shielding with a
ground wire
an outer jacket
Coaxial cables are sometimes
used for bus topologies, but
many LAN products are
dropping support of coaxial
cable connectivity.
The Ethernet LAN protocol was originally developed to operate over coaxial
cables.
 10Base5 / Thicknet cable:
was the original Ethernet cable.
is no longer in use in modern LANs.
10Base2 / Thinnet cable:
has a smaller diameter than Thicknet.
replaced Thicknet.
is no longer recommended, but is still used in some very small LANs.
Unshielded Twisted Pair
 
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cable is used
for both LANs and telephone systems. UTP
cables are composed of four color-coded
pairs of copper conductors twisted around
each other. An outer jacket provides
protection and keeps the pairs in alignment.
UTP cable connects to devices via 8 pin
modular connectors called RJ-45 plugs. All
LAN protocols can operate over UTP. Most
modern LAN devices are equipped with RJ-45
jacks.
Shielded Twisted Pair
STP cable is also used for Data
Networks. It originated with IBM's
Token-Ring networks. Its shielding
allows greater tolerances for
protection from EMI interference,
such as from flourescent light
fixtures and electric motors.
Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber Optic cables are the latest
development in cabling technology.
They are constructed from optical
glass. There is a central glass
filament, called the core, and
surrounding layers of cladding, buffer
coatings, strengthening materials, and
an outer jacket.

Information is transmitted by wavelengths of light. This is accomplished through

devices that convert electrical signals into rapid pulses of either LED or Laser
light.
Fiber optic cables offer several advantages, including:
• high bandwidth capacity (many gigabits per second).
• longer distances between devices (from 2 to over 60 kilometers).
• immunity to electromagnetic interferences
Fiber optic cables are widely used in WANs for both voice and data
communications. The primary barrier to their widespread use in LANs is the
cost of electronics.
Ethernet
Ethernet was developed by Xerox in 1970. It was implemented through
thicknet cable running at 10 Mbps.
Ethernet is a connection media access method that allows all hosts on a
network to share the same bandwidth of a link.
Ethernet actually just refers to the LAN implementations that includes three
principal categories. 
• Ethernet / IEEE 802.3---operates at 10 Mbps on coaxial cable and twisted
pair cable.
• 100-Mbps Ethernet---(also known as Fast Ethernet) operates at 100 Mbps
over twisted-pair cable.
• 1000-Mbps Ethernet---( also known as Gigabit Ethernet) operates at 1000
Mbps (1 Gbps) over fiber and twisted-pair cables.

Basic Operation
 
Ethernet and IEEE 802.3 operation involves three basic components:
• Transmission
• Media access
• Collision handling
Media Access
  The Ethernet media access uses the following process:
• Any station on a LAN can access the network at any time.
• Before sending data, stations listen for traffic on the network.
• A station waits until it detects no traffic before it transmits data.
Collision handling
Ethernet is a "first come, first serve" environment. In such an environment,
any station on the network can transmit whenever the network is quiet. A
collision occurs when two stations listen for traffic, hear none, and then
transmit data at the same time. Both transmissions are damaged, and the
stations must retransmit at a later time.
CSMA / CD
Ehernet Cabling
Striaght Through cable: used to connect
• Host to switch or hub
•Router to switch or hub
Four wires are used in straight-through cable to connect Ethernet devices.

1 1
2 2
cross Through cable: used to connect 3 3
• switch to switch 6 6
• Router direct to host
• hub to hub
• Host to host
Four wires are used as in straight-through cable to connect Ethernet devices.

1 1
2 2
3 3
6 6
 Rolled cable

Although rolled cable is not used to connect any Ethernet connections

together, we use this cable to connect a host to a router console serial
communication (com) port.
Eight wires are used in this cable to connect serial devices.

1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8

Start HyperTerminal to create a console connection and configure the device.

Start Programs accessories communications HyperTerminal
Provide the default settings for com1 port
Network Model Overview
In order for a computer to send information to another computer, and for
that computer to receive and understand the information, there has to exist
a set of rules or standards for this communication process.  These
standards ensure that varying devices and products can communicate with
each other over any network. This set of standards is called a model.
Network Model Advantages
 
This division provides advantages for the network design, architecture and
implementation. These include:

•Reduces complexity - by dividing the processes into groups, or layers,

implementation of network architecture is less complex
•Provides compatibility - standardized interfaces allow for "plug-and-play"
compatibility and multi-vendor integration
•Facilitates modularization - developers "swap" out new technologies at
each layer keeping the integrity of the network architecture
•Accelerates evolution of technology - developers focus on technology at
one layer while preventing the changes from affecting another layer
•Simplifies learning - processes broken up into groups divides the
complexities into smaller, manageable chunks
OSI Network Model
There are 7 layers in the OSI
model. Each layer is
responsible for a particular
aspect of data communication.
For example, one layer may be
responsible for establishing
connections between devices,
while another layer may be
responsible for error checking
during transfer.

The layers of the OSI model are divided into two groups: the upper layer
and lower layer. The upper layers focus on user applications and how files
are represented on the computers prior to transport. For the most part,
network engineers are more concerned with the lower layers. It's the lower
layers that concentrate on how the communication across a network
actually occurs.

ALL People Seem to Need Data Processing (Layer 7 to 1)

Please Do Not Take Sausage Pizzas Away (Layer 1 to 7)
The Application Layer
 
The Application Layer is the highest layer in the
protocol stack and the layer responsible for
introducing data into the OSI stack. In it resides the
protocols for user applications that incorporate the
components of network applications.
Classification of Applications
Computer applications
Network applications
Internetwork applications

Examples: Telnet, FTP, HTTP, WWW Browsers,

NFS, SMTP, POP, TFTP .
Presentation Layer

The Presentation Layer manipulates the

representation of data for transfer to applications on
different devices.

The Presentation Layer is responsible for the

following services:
• Data representation
• Data security
• Data compression

Data Representation
Session Layer

The Session Layer establishes, manages, and

terminates sessions (different from connections)
between applications as they interact on different hosts
on a network.
Its main job is to coordinate the service requests and
responses between different hosts for applications.
Examples: NFS, SQL, RPC, ASP

Three different communication modes exists for data

transfer within a session connection:
• Single-duplex

• Half-duplex

• Full-duplex.
Transport Layer

The basic roles of the Transport Layer are to establish end-to-end

connections from one computer to another on the network and provide
reliable "transport" of data between devices.

Basic Transport Layer Services:

Resource Utilization (multiplexing)
Connection Management (establishing)
Flow Control (Buffering / Windowing)
Reliable Transport (positive acknowledgment / error checking)

Flow Control
  Once the connection has occurred and transfer is in progress, congestion
of the data flow can occur at a destination for a variety of reasons. Possible
options include:  
The destination can become overwhelmed if multiple devices are trying to
send it data at the same time.
It may become overwhelmed if the source is sending faster than it can
physically receive.
Congestion Prevention
 
The Transport Layer is responsible for providing flow control to alleviate the
issue of congestion and provide reliability in the data transfer. Two main
methods for flow control include
•Buffering
•Windowing
Buffering
Buffering is a form of data flow control regulated by the Transport Layer. It is
responsible for ensuring that sufficient buffers are available in the
destination for the processing of data and that is data transmitted at a rate
that does not exceed what the buffer can handle.
Windowing
Windowing is a flow control scheme in which the source computer will monitor
and make adjustments to the amount of information sent based on
successful, reliable receipt of data segments by the destination computer.
The size of the data transmission, called the "window size", is negotiated at
the time of connection establishment. It is determined by the amount of
memory or buffer that is available.

Given a window size of 3, the source

(in this case a router) sends 3 data
segments to the destination. The
destination sends an acknowledgement
asking for the next set of data
segments.

If the destination does not receive all

three of the negotiated data segments,
for example, due to a buffer overflow, it
sends no acknowledgment. Since the
source does not receive an
acknowledgment, it knows the data
segments should be retransmitted
Network Layer
The Network Layer is the 3rd layer in the OSI model and is responsible for
identifying computers on a network. This layer works closely with layer 2 to
translate data packets from a logical address (similar to an IP address) into
hardware based MAC addresses.
This layer is concerned with 2 functions:
• Routing
• Fragmentation / Reassembly

Two types of packets are used at the Network layer:

Data packets: Used to transport user data through the internetwork.

Protocols used to support data traffic are called routed protocols. Eg. IP
and IPX.

Route update packets: Used to update neighboring routers about the

network connected to all routers within the internetwork. Protocols that
send route updates are called routing protocols. Eg. RIP, EIGRP, OSPF
Data Link / Physical Layer
LAN and WAN protocols occupy the bottom two layers of the OSI model.
These two layers, Physical Layer and Data Link Layer, work very closely
together to ensure data transfer across the physical network. Examples:
HDLC, Frame Relay, PPP, ATM, FDDI, IEEE 802.3/802.2
To accomplish accurate delivery, the Data Link Layer provides the following
services: 
1. Machine address determination of both sending and receiving machines
2. Formatting of Network Layer "packets" into frames with machine
addresses
attached
3. Sequencing and resequencing of frames transmitted out of sequence
Data Link Sublayers

Logical Link Control (LLC)

responsible for identifying Network
layer protocols and encapsulating
them.
Media Access Control (MAC) defines
how packets are placed on media
Physical Layer

The Physical Layer is the lowest layer in the OSI model and is concerned
with how the physical structure of the network enables transmission of
data. It is responsible for defining the mechanical and electrical
specifications for the transmission medium within a connection, as well
as the transformation or encoding of data into “bits”.
Examples:EIA/TIA-232, V.35, EIA/TIA-449, RJ-45, Ethernet, 802.3
Protocols

                                                              

Protocols defined at the Physical Layer standardize physical

connections. Specifications include voltage levels, maximum
transmission distances, data rates, and physical connectors.
 Each layer depends on the service
function of the ISO/OSI layer below it.
To provide this service, the lower
layer uses encapsulation to put the
PDU from the upper layer into its
data field; then it can add whatever
headers and trailers the layer will use
to perform its function.

As networks perform services for

users, the flow and packaging of
the information changes. In this
example of internetworking, five
conversion steps occur:
What do the 7 layers really do?
 

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                

                           
TCP/IP
The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite of
protocols was developed as part of the research done by the Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA).
TCP/IP Protocol Layers
• Process/Application Layer
• Transport Layer or Host-to-Host Layer
• Internet Layer
• Network Access Layer

Application protocols exist

for file transfer, e-mail,
and remote login.
Network management is
also supported at the
application layer.
 Transport services allow
users to segment and
reassemble several upper-
layer applications onto the
same transport-layer data
stream.

TCP Segment

UDP Segment
 IP provides connectionless,
best-effort delivery routing of
datagrams. It is not concerned
with the content of the
datagrams. Instead, it looks for
a way to move the datagrams to
their destination.

IP Datagram

Version - Version number (4 bits)

Header Length - Header length in 32-
bit words (4 bits)
Priority and Type of Service - How the
datagram should be handled. The first 3
bits are priority bits (8 bits).
IP Options - Network testing,
debugging, security, and others (0 or 32
bits if any)
ICMP
The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is implemented by all
TCP/IP hosts. ICMP messages are carried in IP datagrams and are used to
send error and control messages.

ICMP uses the following types of defined messages:

1. Destination Unreachable
2. Time Exceeded
3. Parameter Problem
4. Subnet Mask Request
5. Redirect
6. Echo
7. Echo Reply
8. Information Request
9. Information Reply
10.Address Request
11.Address Reply
Address Resolution Protocol
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to resolve or map a known IP
address to a MAC sublayer address to allow communication on a multi-
access medium such as Ethernet.

The term local ARP is used to describe resolving an address when both the
requesting host and the destination host share the same media or wire.
Reverse ARP
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) relies on the presence of a
RARP server with a table entry or other means to respond to these requests.

ARP and RARP are implemented directly on top of the data link layer
IP Address
In a TCP/IP environment, end stations communicate seamlessly with
servers or other end stations. This communication occurs because each
node using the TCP/IP protocol suite has a unique 32-bit logical IP address.
Each IP datagram includes the source IP address and destination
IP address that identifies the source and destination network and host.

When IP was first developed, there were no classes of addresses.

Now, for ease of administration, the IP addresses are broken up into
classes.

The bits in the first octet

identify the address
class. The router uses
the first bits to identify
how many bits it must
match to interpret the
network portion of the
address
 Class A addresses include the following:
• The first bit is 0.
• Range of network numbers: 1.0.0.0 to

 
126.0.0.0
• Number of possible networks: 127 (1-
126 usable, 127 is reserved)
• Number of possible values in the host

                                                                                  portion: 16,777,216.

Class                           
B addresses include the following:
•The first two bits are 10.
•Range of network numbers: 128.0.0.0 to
191.255.0.0
•Number of possible networks: 16,384
•Number of possible values in the host
portion: 65,536
 Class C addresses include the following:

 
•The first three bits are 110.
•Range of network numbers: 192.0.0.0 to
223.255.255.0
•Number of possible networks: 2,097,152
                                                                                  •Number of possible values in the host
portion: 256
                           

Class D addresses include the

following:
• Range of network numbers:
224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255