Diode Circuits

The Transformer, The Half-Wave Rectifier, The Full-Wave

Rectifier, The Bridge Rectifier, Peak Inverse Voltage and
Surge Current, Clippers and Limiters, Clampers, Voltage
Multipliers, The Choke Input Filter, The Capacitor Input Filter
(4th 5th Week)

Objectives
At the end of this topic you should be able to:
Describe how a transformer works and
important transformer ratings.

list

Calculate the currents, voltages, and impedances

of a transformer circuit.
Identify the different types of transformer cores.
Explain the operation of a half-wave and full-wave
rectifier.
Calculate the output voltage of half-wave and fullwave rectifiers.

Objectives
At the end of this topic you should be able to:
Explain the effect of a capacitor filter on the
operation of half-wave and full-wave rectifiers.
List the characteristics of a light-emitting diode
(LED).
List the forward- and reverse-bias characteristics
of a zener diode.
Calculate the voltage and current values in a
loaded zener voltage regulator.

Diode Circuits

THE TRANSFORMER

The transformer is an important application of

mutual inductance.
As shown, a transformer has a primary winding
inductance LP connected to a voltage source that
produces alternating current, and the secondary
winding inductance LS is connected across the
load resistance RL.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER
The purpose of the transformer is to transfer
power from the primary, where the generator is
connected, to the secondary, where the induced
secondary voltage can produce current in the
load resistance that is connected across LS.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER
Although the primary and secondary are not
physically connected to each other, power in the
primary is coupled into the secondary by the
magnetic field linking the two windings.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER
The transformer is used to provide power for the
load resistance RL, instead of connecting RL
directly across the generator, whenever the load
requires an ac voltage higher or lower than the
generator voltage.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER
By having more or fewer turns in LS, compared
with LP, the transformer can step up or step down
the generator voltage to provide the required
amount of secondary voltage.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER
Typical transformers are shown below.

Note that a steady dc voltage cannot be stepped

up or down by a transformer because a steady
current cannot produce induced voltage.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

When the secondary has more turns than the

primary, the secondary voltage is higher than
the primary voltage and the primary voltage is
said to be stepped up.

This principle is illustrated with a step-up ratio of

10100, or 1:10.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

When the secondary has fewer turns, the voltage

is stepped down.

In either case, the ratio is in terms of the primary

voltage, which may be stepped up or down in the
secondary winding.

These calculations apply only

transformers with unity coupling.

to

iron-core

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

Air core transformers for rf circuits are generally

tuned to resonance.

In this case, the resonance factor is considered

instead of the turns ratio.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

With unity coupling between primary and

secondary, the voltage induced in each turn of
the secondary is the same as the self-induced
voltage of each turn in the primary.
Therefore, the voltage ratio is in the same
proportion as the turns ratio:

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

The transformer shown has a turns ratio, NP : NS,

of 4:1. Therefore, the root-mean-square (rms)
secondary voltage is calculated as shown:

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER
To calculate the peak secondary voltage, we
proceed as shown:

The peak-to-peak value of the secondary voltage

equals
2 x VS(pk) or 2 x 42.42-V = 84.84-Vp.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

It is important to note that power used by the

secondary load, such as RL in the circuit, is
supplied by the generator in the primary.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

With current in the secondary winding, its

magnetic field opposes the varying flux of the
primary current.

The generator must then produce more primary

current to maintain the self-induced voltage
across L and the secondary voltage developed in

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

If the secondary current doubles, for instance,

because the load resistance is reduced by onehalf, the primary current will also double in value
to provide the required power for the secondary.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

Therefore, the effect of the secondary-load power

on the generator is the same as though RL were in
the primary, except that the voltage for RL in the
secondary is stepped up or down by the turns
ratio.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

The current ratio is the inverse of the voltage

ratio, that is, voltage step-up in the secondary
means current step-down, and vice versa.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

The secondary does not generate power but takes

it from the primary.

Therefore, the current step-up or step-down is in

terms of the secondary current IS, which is
determined by the load resistance across the
secondary voltage.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

As an aid in calculations, remember

that the side with the higher voltage
has the lower current. The primary and
secondary V and I are in the same
proportion as the number of turns in
the primary and secondary.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

The circuit below illustrates a power transformer

with two secondary windings L1 and L2.

There can be one, two, or more secondary windings

with unity coupling to the primary as long as all the
windings are on the same iron core.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

Each secondary winding has induced voltage in

proportion to its turns ratio with the primary
winding, which is connected across the 120 V
source.

The secondary winding L1 has a voltage step-up of

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

The 7200- load resistance R1, across L1, allows

the 720 V to produce 0.1 A for I1 in this secondary
circuit.

The power here is 720-V x 0.1-A = 72-W.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

The other secondary winding L2 provides voltage

step-down with the ratio 20:1, resulting in 6-V
across R2.

The 0.6- load resistance in this circuit allows 10-A

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

Therefore, the power here is 6-V x 10-A, or 60-W.

Since the windings have separate connections,

each can have its individual values of voltage and
current.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

The total power used in the secondary circuits is

supplied by the primary.

In this example, the total secondary power is 132W, equal to 72-W for P1 and 60-W for P2.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

The power supplied by the 120-V source in the

primary then is 72 + 60 = 132-W.

The primary current IP equals the primary power PP

divided by the primary voltage VP. This is 132-W
divided by 120-V, which equals 1.1-A for the

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

The same value can be calculated as the sum of

0.6-A of primary current providing power for L1 plus
0.5-A of primary current for L2, resulting in the total
of 1.1 A as the value of IP.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

This example shows how to analyze a loaded power

transformer.

The main idea is that the primary current depends

on the secondary load.

With more than one secondary, calculate each IS

and PS.

Then add all PS values for the total secondary

power, which equals the primary power.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

The calculations can be summarized as follows:

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

Efficiency is defined as the ratio of power out to

power in. Stated as a formula,

For example, when the power out in watts equals

one-half the power in, the efficiency is one-half,
which equals 0.5 100%, or 50%.

In a transformer, power out is secondary power,

and power in is primary power.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

Assuming zero losses in the transformer, power out

equals power in and the efficiency is 100%.

Actual power transformers, however,

efficiency slightly less than 100%.

The efficiency is approximately 80 to 90% for

transformers that have high power ratings.

Transformers for higher power are more efficient

because they require heavier wire, which has less
resistance.

have

an

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER

In a transformer that is less than 100% efficient, the

primary supplies more than the secondary power.

The primary power that is lost is dissipated as heat

in the transformer, resulting from I2R in the
conductors and certain losses in the core material.

The R of the primary winding is generally about 10 or less for power transformers.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER: RATINGS

Like other components, transformers have voltage,

current, and power ratings that must not be
exceeded.

Exceeding any of these ratings will usually destroy

the transformer.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER: RATINGS

Manufacturers of transformers always specify the

voltage rating of the primary and secondary
windings.

Under no circumstances should the primary voltage

rating be exceeded.

In many cases, the rated primary and secondary

voltages are printed on the transformer.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER: RATINGS

Consider the transformer shown.

Its rated primary voltage is 120-V,

and its secondary voltage is
specified as
12.6012.6,
which indicates that the secondary
is center-tapped.

The notation 12.6012.6 indicates

that 12.6-V is available between the
center tap connection and either
outside secondary lead.

The

total

secondary

voltage

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER: RATINGS

As illustrated, the black leads

coming out of the top of the
transformer provide connection to
the primary winding.

The two yellow leads coming out of

the bottom of the transformer
provide connection to the outer
leads of the secondary winding.

The bottom middle black lead

connects to the center tap on the

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER: RATINGS

Note that manufacturers may

specify the secondary voltages of a
transformer differently.

For example, the secondary may

be specified as 25.2-V CT, where
CT indicates a center-tapped
secondary.

Another way to specify the

secondary voltage would be 12.6 V
each side of center.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER: RATINGS

Regardless of how the secondary

voltage of a transformer is
specified, the rated value is always
specified under full-load conditions
with the rated primary voltage
applied.

A transformer is considered fully

loaded when the rated current is
drawn from the secondary.

When unloaded, the secondary

voltage will measure a value that

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER: RATINGS

As an example, the secondary

current is
2-A. If 120-V is
connected to the primary and no
load
is
connected
to
the
secondary, each half of the
secondary
will
measure
somewhere between 13.2- and
13.9-V approximately.

However, with the rated current of

2-A drawn from the secondary,
each half of the secondary will
measure approximately 12.6-V.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER: RATINGS

As illustrated, the schematic diagram for the

transformer below with the colors of each lead are
identified for clarity.

Transformers can have more than one secondary

winding, likewise, they can also have more than
one primary winding with purpose to allow using

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER: RATINGS

The illustrations shows a

transformer
with
two
separate primaries and a
single secondary.

This transformer can be

wired to work with a
primary voltage of either
120- or 240-V.

For either value of primary

voltage, the secondary
voltage is 24-V.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER: RATINGS

Figure above shows the

individual
primary
windings with phasing dots
to identify those leads with
the same instantaneous
polarity.

Figure below shows how to

connect
the
primary
windings to 240 V.

Notice the connections of

the leads with the phasing

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER: RATINGS

With this connection, each

half of the primary voltage
is in the proper phase to
provide a series-aiding
connection of the induced
voltages.

Furthermore, the series

connection of the primary
windings provides a turns
ratio NP / NS of 10:1, thus
allowing
a
secondary
voltage of 24-V.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER: RATINGS

For a 120-V input, notice

the connection of the
leads with the phasing
dots.

When
the
primary
windings are in parallel,
the total primary current IP
is divided evenly between
the windings.

The parallel connection

also provides a turns ratio

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER: RATINGS

Illustration shows a transformer that can operate

with a primary voltage of either 120- or 440-V.

In this case, only one of the primary windings is

used with a given primary voltage.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER: RATINGS

For example, if 120-V is applied to the lower

primary, the upper primary winding is not used.

Conversely, if 440-V is applied to the upper

primary, the lower primary winding is not used.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER: RATINGS

Manufacturers of transformers usually specify

current ratings only for the secondary windings.

The reason is quite simple. If the secondary

current is not exceeded, there is no possible way
the primary current can be exceeded.

If the secondary current exceeds its rated value,

excessive I2R losses will result in the secondary
winding.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER: RATINGS

This will cause the secondary, and perhaps the

primary, to overheat, thus eventually destroying
the transformer.

The IR voltage drop across the secondary windings

is the reason that the secondary voltage
decreases as the load current increases.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER: RATINGS

The power rating of a transformer is the amount of

power the transformer can deliver to a resistive
load.

The power rating is specified in volt-amperes (VA)

rather than watts (W) because the power is not
actually dissipated by the transformer.

The product VA is called apparent power, since it

is the power that is apparently used by the
transformer.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER: RATINGS

The unit of apparent power is VA because the watt

unit is reserved for the dissipation of power in a
resistance.

Assume that a power transformer whose primary

and secondary voltage ratings are 120-V and 25-V,
respectively, has a power rating of 125-VA.

What does this mean? It means that the product of

the transformers primary, or secondary, voltage
and current must not exceed 125 VA.

If it does, the transformer will overheat and be

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER: RATINGS

The maximum allowable secondary current for this

transformer can be calculated as

The maximum allowable primary current can be

calculated as

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER: RATINGS

With multiple secondary windings, the VA rating of

each individual secondary may be given without
any mention of the primary VA rating.

In this case, the sum of all secondary VA ratings

must be divided by the rated primary voltage to
determine the maximum allowable primary
current.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER: RATINGS

In summary, you will never overload a transformer

or exceed any of its maximum ratings if you obey
two fundamental rules:
1. Never apply more than the rated voltage to
the primary.
2. Never draw more than the rated current from
the secondary.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER: RATINGS

All transformers have a frequency rating that must

be adhered to.

Typical frequency ratings for power transformers

are 50-, 60-, and 400-Hz.

A power transformer with a frequency rating of

400-Hz cannot be used at 50- or 60-Hz because it
will overheat.

Diode Circuits
THE TRANSFORMER: RATINGS

However, many power transformers are designed

to operate at either 50- or 60-Hz because many
types of equipment may be sold in both Europe
and the United States, where the power-line
frequencies are 50- and 60-Hz, respectively.

Power transformers with a 400-Hz rating are often

used in aircraft because these transformers are
much smaller and lighter than 50- or 60-Hz
transformers having the same power rating.

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
RECTIFICATION

INPUTS;

HALF-WAVE

The diode analysis will now be expanded to

include time-varying functions such as the
sinusoidal waveform and the square wave.
There is no question that the degree of difficulty
will increase, but once a few fundamental
maneuvers are understood, the analysis will be
fairly direct and follow a common thread.

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
RECTIFICATION

INPUTS;

HALF-WAVE

The simplest of networks to examine with a timevarying signal appears in Fig. 2.43.

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
RECTIFICATION

INPUTS;

HALF-WAVE

For the moment we will use the ideal model to

ensure that the approach is not clouded by
additional mathematical complexity.

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
RECTIFICATION

INPUTS;

HALF-WAVE

Over one full cycle, defined by the period T, the

average value (the algebraic sum of the areas
above and below the axis) is zero.

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
RECTIFICATION

INPUTS;

HALF-WAVE

The circuit shown, called a half-wave rectifier, will

generate a waveform Vo that will have an average
value of particular, use in the ac-to-dc conversion
process.

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
RECTIFICATION

INPUTS;

HALF-WAVE

When employed in the rectification process, a

diode is typically referred to as a rectifier.
Its power and current ratings are typically much
higher than those of diodes employed in other
applications,
such
as
computers
and
communication systems.

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
RECTIFICATION

INPUTS;

HALF-WAVE

During the interval t = 0 T/2 in Fig. 2.43 the

polarity of the applied voltage vi is such as to
establish pressure in the direction indicated and
turn on the diode with the polarity appearing
above the diode.

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
RECTIFICATION

INPUTS;

HALF-WAVE

Substituting the short-circuit equivalence for the

ideal diode will result in the equivalent circuit
shown, where it is fairly obvious that the output
signal is an exact replica of the applied signal.

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
RECTIFICATION

INPUTS;

HALF-WAVE

The two terminals defining the output voltage are

connected directly to the applied signal via the
short-circuit equivalence of the diode.

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
RECTIFICATION

INPUTS;

HALF-WAVE

For the period T/2 T, the polarity of the input vi

is as shown and the resulting polarity across the
ideal diode produces an off state with an opencircuit equivalent.

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
RECTIFICATION

INPUTS;

HALF-WAVE

The result is the absence of a path for charge to

flow and
vo = iR = (0)R = 0-V for the period T/2 T.

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
INPUTS;
RECTIFICATION
The input vi and the
output
vo
were
sketched together in
Fig.
2.46
for
comparison purposes.
The output signal vo
now
has
a
net
positive area above
the axis over a full
period
and
an
average
value
determined by

HALF-WAVE

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
INPUTS;
HALF-WAVE
RECTIFICATION
The process of removing one-half the input signal
to establish a dc level is aptly called half-wave
rectification.

The effect of using a silicon diode with VT = 0.7 V is

demonstrated in the circuit for the forward-bias
region.

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
INPUTS;
HALF-WAVE
RECTIFICATION
The applied signal must now be at least 0.7 V
before the diode can turn on.

For levels of vi less than 0.7 V, the diode is still in

an open- circuit state and vo = 0-V as shown in the
same figure.

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
INPUTS;
HALF-WAVE
RECTIFICATION
When conducting, the difference between vo and vi
is 0.7V and vo = vi - VT, as shown in the figure.

The net effect is a reduction in area above the axis,

which naturally reduces the resulting dc voltage
level.

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
INPUTS;
HALF-WAVE
RECTIFICATION
For situations where Vm >> VT, the equation below
can be applied to determine the average value
with a relatively high level of accuracy.

In fact, if Vm is sufficiently greater than VT, it is

often applied as a first approximation for Vdc.

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
RECTIFICATION
Example 1:

INPUTS;

HALF-WAVE

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
RECTIFICATION
Example 1:
Solution

INPUTS;

HALF-WAVE

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
RECTIFICATION
Example 1:
Solution

INPUTS;

HALF-WAVE

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
RECTIFICATION
Example 1:
Solution

INPUTS;

HALF-WAVE

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
INPUTS;
HALF-WAVE
RECTIFICATION
PEAK INVERSE VOLTAGE
The Peak Inverse Voltage can be determined by the
equation:

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
INPUTS;
FULL-WAVE
RECTIFICATION
BRIDGE NETWORK
The dc level obtained from a sinusoidal input can
be improved 100% using a process called full-wave
rectification.

The most familiar network for performing such a

function appears, as shown, with its four diodes in
a bridge configuration.

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
INPUTS;
FULL-WAVE
RECTIFICATION
BRIDGE NETWORK
During the period t = 0 to T/2 the polarity of the
input is as illustrated.

The resulting polarities across the ideal diodes are

also shown to reveal that D2 and D3 are conducting
while D1 and D4 are in the off state.

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
INPUTS;
FULL-WAVE
RECTIFICATION
BRIDGE NETWORK
The net result is the configuration as shown, with
its indicated current and polarity across R.

Since the diodes are ideal the load voltage is vo =

vi, as shown in the same figure.

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
INPUTS;
FULL-WAVE
RECTIFICATION
BRIDGE NETWORK
For the negative region of the input the conducting
diodes are D1 and D4, resulting in the configuration
shown.

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
INPUTS;
FULL-WAVE
RECTIFICATION
BRIDGE NETWORK
The important result is that the polarity across the
load resistor R is the same and establishing a
second positive pulse, as shown.

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
INPUTS;
FULL-WAVE
RECTIFICATION
BRIDGE NETWORK
Over one full cycle the input and output voltages
will appear as shown.

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
INPUTS;
FULL-WAVE
RECTIFICATION
BRIDGE NETWORK
Since the area above the axis for one full cycle is
now twice that obtained for a half-wave system,
the dc level has also been doubled, then

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
INPUTS;
FULL-WAVE
RECTIFICATION
BRIDGE NETWORK
If silicon rather than ideal diodes are employed as,
an application of Kirchhoffs voltage law around
the conduction path would result in;

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
INPUTS;
FULL-WAVE
RECTIFICATION
BRIDGE NETWORK
The peak value of the output voltage vo is
therefore;

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
INPUTS;
FULL-WAVE
RECTIFICATION
BRIDGE NETWORK
For situations where Vm >> 2VT, the following
equation can be applied for the average value with
a relatively high level of accuracy.

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
INPUTS;
FULL-WAVE
RECTIFICATION
BRIDGE NETWORK
Then again, if Vm is sufficiently greater than 2VT,
then the as a first approximation for Vdc is often
applied.

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
INPUTS;
FULL-WAVE
RECTIFICATION
PEAK INVERSE VOLTAGE
The required PIV of each diode (ideal) can be
determined from the illustration obtained at the
peak of the positive region of the input signal.
+
PIV
Vm

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
INPUTS;
FULL-WAVE
RECTIFICATION
CENTER-TAPPED TRANSFORMER
A second popular full-wave rectifier appears below
with only two diodes but requiring a center-tapped
(CT) transformer to establish the input signal
across each section of the secondary of the
transformer.

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
INPUTS;
FULL-WAVE
RECTIFICATION
CENTER-TAPPED TRANSFORMER
During the positive portion of vi applied to the
primary of the transformer, the network will
appear as shown in Fig. 2.60. D1 assumes the
short-circuit equivalent and D2 the open-circuit
equivalent, as determined by the secondary
voltages and the resulting current directions.

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
INPUTS;
FULL-WAVE
RECTIFICATION
CENTER-TAPPED TRANSFORMER
During the negative portion of the input the
network appears as shown, reversing the roles of
the diodes but maintaining the same polarity for
the voltage across the load resistor R.

Diode Circuits
SINUSOIDAL
INPUTS;
FULL-WAVE
RECTIFICATION
PEAK INVERSE VOLTAGE
The net PIV for each diode for this full-wave
rectifier is the maximum voltage for the secondary
voltage and Vm as established by the adjoining loop
will result in

+
-

Diode Circuits

Vi

Vo
8V

-32

32