INTRODUCTION

 Sampling in daily life

 Blood chemistry studies are done with a few drops
(samples) of blood
 Quality of grain is assessed by checking few

sample grains taken from the sack

 Taste assessment in kitchen also use sampling
 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
 Population- all items which fall in the purview
of enquiry
 Sample - A portion chosen from
population
 Sample size - number of units in sample
 Sampling units –constituents of population to
be sampled and cannot be further subdivded
for sampling
 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

 Sampling frame -list identifying each

sampling unit Eg. voters list
 Statistics - character of sample
 Parameter - character of population
 SAMPLING – WHY?
 Complete enumeration impossible if
population is infinite
 Results required in short time
 Area of survey wide
 Resources for survey limited in respect of
money and trained persons
 PRINCIPLES OF SAMPLING

 Principle of statistical regularity

 Principle of inertia of large numbers
 Principle of validity
 Principle of optimisation
 ERRORS
 Sampling error –discrepency between
parameter and ite estimates due to sampling
process
 Non sampling error- Errors while collecting
information
 TYPES OF SAMPLING
 Random (Probability ) Sampling
 Judgment (Non probability) sampling
 Mixed Sampling
TYPES OF RANDOM SAMPLING

 Simple random sampling

 Systematic sampling

 Stratified random sampling

 Cluster sampling
 Simple Random Sampling

Why?
 Basic building block of sampling
 Sample from a homogeneous group of units

How?
 Physically make draws at random of the units

under study -lottery method

 Computer selection methods:

 Random tables
 Systematic Sampling

Why?
 Easy

 Can be very efficient depending on the structure of

the population
How?
 Get a random start in the population

 Sample every kth unit for some chosen number k

 Stratified Random Sampling

Why?
 For administrative convenience

 To improve efficiency

 Estimates may be required for each stratum

How?
 Independent simple random samples are

chosen
 Within each stratum
 Cluster Sampling

Why?
 Convenience and cost

 The frame or list of population units may be

 Defined only for the clusters and not the units

How?
 Take a simple random sample of clusters and

 Measure all units in the cluster

 Two-Stage Sampling

Why?
 Cost and convenience

 Lack of a complete frame

How?
 Take either a simple random sample or an unequal

 Probability sample of primary units and then within a

 Primary take a simple random sample of secondary

units
 Stratified two-stage cluster sampling

 Strata
 Geographical areas
 First stage units
 Smaller areas within the larger areas
 Second stage units
 Households
 Clusters
 All individuals in the household
 NON PROBABILITY(JUDGEMENT)
SAMPLING
 This method is mainly used for
 Opinion surveys;

 Market research survey of the

 Performance of their new car -sample was all

new car purchasers.

 Bias and prejudices shadows results
Basic Concepts in Samples and Sampling

• Population: the entire group under study as

defined by research objectives. Sometimes
called the “universe.”

Researchers define populations in specific terms

such as heads of households, individual person
types, families, types of retail outlets, etc.
Population geographic location and time of study
are also considered.
 Basic Concepts in Samples and Sampling

• Sample: a subset of the population that should

represent the entire group
• Sample unit: the basic level of
investigation…consumers, store managers, shelf-
facings, teens, etc. The research objective
should define the sample unit
• Census: an accounting of the complete
population
Basic Concepts in Samples and Sampling…
cont.

• Sampling error: any error that occurs in a survey

because a sample is used (random error)
• Sample frame: a master list of the population
(total or partial) from which the sample will be
drawn
• Sample frame error (SFE): the degree to which
the sample frame fails to account for all of the
defined units in the population (e.g a telephone
book listing does not contain unlisted numbers)
leading to sampling frame error.
Basic Concepts in Samples and Sampling…
cont.

• Calculating sample frame error (SFE):

Subtract the number of items on the sampling list
from the total number of items in the population.
Take this number and divide it by the total
population. Multiply this decimal by 100 to
convert to percent (SFE must be expressed in %)
If the SFE was 40% this would mean that 40% of the
population was not in the sampling frame
 Reasons for Taking a Sample

• Practical considerations such as cost and

population size
• Inability of researcher to analyze large quantities
of data potentially generated by a census
• Samples can produce sound results if proper
rules are followed for the draw
 Basic Sampling Classifications

• Probability samples: ones in which members of

the population have a known chance (probability)
of being selected
• Non-probability samples: instances in which the
chances (probability) of selecting members from
the population are unknown
 Probability Sampling Methods
Simple Random Sampling

• Simple random sampling: the probability of being

selected is “known and equal” for all members of the
population
• Blind Draw Method (e.g. names “placed in a hat”
and then drawn randomly)
• Random Numbers Method (all items in the
sampling frame given numbers, numbers then
drawn using table or computer program)
• Advantages:
• Known and equal chance of selection
• Easy method when there is an electronic database
 Probability Sampling Methods
Simple Random Sampling

• Disadvantages: (Overcome with electronic database)

• Complete accounting of population needed
• Cumbersome to provide unique designations to
every population member
• Very inefficient when applied to skewed population
distribution (over- and under-sampling problems) –
this is not “overcome with the use of an electronic
database)
 Probability Sampling Methods
Systematic Sampling (A Cluster Method)

• Systematic sampling: way to select a probability-

based sample from a directory or list. This
method is at times more efficient than simple
random sampling. This is a type of cluster
sampling method.
• Sampling interval (SI) = population list size (N)
divided by a pre-determined sample size (n)
• How to draw: 1) calculate SI, 2) select a
number between 1 and SI randomly, 3) go to
this number as the starting point and the item
on the list here is the first in the sample, 4) add
SI to the position number of this item and the
new position will be the second sampled item,
5) continue this process until desired sample
size is reached.
 Probability Sampling Methods
Systematic Sampling

• Advantages:
• Known and equal chance of any of the SI
“clusters” being selected
• Efficiency..do not need to designate (assign a
number to) every population member, just
those early on on the list (unless there is a
very large sampling frame).
• Less expensive…faster than SRS
• Disadvantages:
• Small loss in sampling precision
• Potential “periodicity” problems
 Probability Sampling Methods
Cluster Sampling

• Cluster sampling: method by which the

population is divided into groups (clusters), any
of which can be considered a representative
sample. These clusters are mini-populations and
therefore are heterogeneous. Once clusters are
established a random draw is done to select one
(or more) clusters to represent the population.
Area and systematic sampling (discussed earlier)
are two common methods.
• Area sampling
 Probability Sampling Methods
Cluster Sampling

• Advantages
• Economic efficiency … faster and less
expensive than SRS
• Does not require a list of all members of the
universe

• Disadvantage:
• Cluster specification error…the more
homogeneous the cluster chosen, the more
imprecise the sample results
 Probability Sampling Methods
Cluster Sampling – Area Method

• Drawing the area sample:

• Divide the geo area into sectors (subareas)

and give them names/numbers, determine how
many sectors are to be sampled (typically a
judgment call), randomly select these
subareas. Do either a census or a systematic
draw within each area.
• To determine the total geo area estimate add
the counts in the subareas together and
multiply this number by the ratio of the total
number of subareas divided by number of
subareas.
A two-step area cluster sample (sampling several clusters) is
preferable to a one-step (selecting only one cluster) sample
unless the clusters are homogeneous
 Probability Sampling Methods
Stratified Sampling Method

• This method is used when the population

distribution of items is skewed. It allows us to
draw a more representative sample. Hence if
there are more of certain type of item in the
population the sample has more of this type
and if there are fewer of another type, there are
fewer in the sample.
 Probability Sampling Methods
Stratified Sampling

• Stratified sampling: the population is separated

into homogeneous groups/segments/strata and a
sample is taken from each. The results are then
combined to get the picture of the total
population.
• Sample stratum size determination
• Proportional method (stratum share of total
sample is stratum share of total population)
• Disproportionate method (variances among
strata affect sample size for each stratum)
 Probability Sampling Methods
Stratified Sampling

• Advantage:
• More accurate overall sample of skewed
population…see next slide for WHY
• Disadvantage:
• More complex sampling plan requiring
different sample sizes for each stratum
Why is Stratified Sampling more accurate when
there are skewed populations?

The less the variance in a group, the smaller the

sample size it takes to produce a precise answer.
Why? If 99% of the population (low variance)
agreed on the choice of brand A, it would be easy
to make a precise estimate that the population
preferred brand A even with a small sample size.
But, if 33% chose brand A, and 23% chose B, and
so on (high variance) it would be difficult to make
a precise estimate of the population’s preferred
brand…it would take a larger sample size….
Why is Stratified Sampling more accurate when
there are skewed populations? Continued..

Stratified sampling allows the researcher to

allocate a larger sample size to strata with
more variance and smaller sample size to
strata with less variance. Thus, for the
same sample size, more precision is
achieved.
This is normally accomplished by
disproportionate sampling.
 Nonprobability Sampling Methods
Convenience Sampling Method

• Convenience samples: samples drawn at the

convenience of the interviewer. People tend to
make the selection at familiar locations and to
choose respondents who are like themselves.
• Error occurs 1) in the form of members of the
population who are infrequent or nonusers of
that location and 2) who are not typical in the
population
 Nonprobability Sampling Methods
Judgment Sampling Method

• Judgment samples: samples that require a

judgment or an “educated guess” on the part of
the interviewer as to who should represent the
population. Also, “judges” (informed individuals)
may be asked to suggest who should be in the
sample.
• Subjectivity enters in here, and certain
members of the population will have a smaller
or no chance of selection compared to others
 Developing a Sample Plan

• Sample plan: definite sequence of steps that the

researcher goes through in order to draw and
ultimately arrive at the final sample
 Developing a Sample Plan
Six steps

• Step 1: Define the relevant population.

• Specify the descriptors, geographic
locations, and time for the sampling
units.
• Step 2: Obtain a population list, if possible;
may only be some type of sample
frame
• List brokers, government units,
customer lists, competitors’ lists,
association lists, directories, etc.
 Developing a Sample Plan
Six steps

• Step 2 (concluded):
• Incidence rate (occurrence of certain
types in the population, the lower the
incidence the larger the required list
needed to draw sample from)
 Developing a Sample Plan
Six steps …continued

• Step 3: Design the sample method (size and

method).
• Determine specific sampling method
to be used. All necessary steps must
be specified (sample frame, n, …
recontacts, and replacements)
• Step 4: Draw the sample.
• Select the sample unit and gain the
information
 Developing a Sample Plan
Six steps…concluded

• Step 4 (Continued):
• Drop-down substitution
• Oversampling
• Resampling
• Step 5: Assess the sample.
• Sample validation – compare sample
profile with population profile; check
non-responders
• Step 6: Resample if necessary.