Fires and

Explosions: Part II
Acknowledgement to Dr Syed Shatir A.
Syed-Hassan

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Faculty of Chemical
Engineering
Universiti Teknologi
MARA

 Explosion is a sudden and violent release of

energy.
The violence of the explosions depends on
the rate at which energy is released.
The energy release must be sudden enough
to cause a local accumulation of energy at
the site of location.
This energy is dissipated by a variety of
mechanisms, including formation of
pressure wave, projectiles, thermal
radiation, and acoustic energy.

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Explosion

 If the explosion occurs in a gas, the energy

causes the gas to expand rapidly,
initiating a pressure wave that moves
rapidly outward from the blast source.

The pressure wave contains energy,

which results in damage to the
surroundings.

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Explosion

 To understand explosion impacts, we must

understand the dynamics of the pressure
wave.
A pressure wave propagating in air is called
a blast wave because the pressure wave
is followed by a strong wind.
A shock wave or shock front results if the
pressure front has an abrupt pressure
change.
The maximum pressure over ambient
pressure is called the peak overpressure.

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Explosion

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Shockwave

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Shockwave

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Injury

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Injury

Ambient temperature
Ambient pressure
Composition of explosive material
Physical properties of explosive material
Nature of ignition source: type, energy and
duration
Geometry of surroundings: confined and
unconfined
Amount of combustible material
Turbulence of combustible material
Time before ignition

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Parameters Affecting the

Behaviour of Explosions

Detonation and
Deflagration

The explosions from combustion are of two

kinds:

A deflagration is a very fast moving and hot

fire that moves as heated materials ignite cold
ones.
A detonation is an even faster-moving fire that
can also create a shock wave
Detonation: Reaction front propagates above
the sonic velocity.
Deflagration: Reaction propagates at a speed
less than the sonic velocity.

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Detonation
Deflagration

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Detonation and
Deflagration

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Detonation and
Deflagration

Detonation and
Deflagration

VAPOR CLOUD DEFLAGRATION

TIME

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OVERPRESSURE

DETONATION

 The explosions (either detonation or

deflagration) results in a reaction front
moving outward from the ignition source
preceded by a shock wave or pressure
front.
After the combustible material is
consumed, the reaction front terminates,
but the pressure wave continues its
outward movement.
A blast wave is composed of the pressure
wave and subsequent wind.

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Blast Damage from

Overpressure

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Blast Damage from

Overpressure

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Blast Damage from

Overpressure

psi
g
0.1
5
0.4
0.7
2
5-7

kpa

Damage

1.03
2.76
4.8
13.8
34.548.2

Glass breakage
Limited minor structural damage
Minor damage to house structure
Partial collapse of walls and roofs of
houses
Nearly complete destruction of
houses

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Some damage
approximations based on
overpressure

 Experiments with explosive have

demonstrated that the overpressure can be
estimated using an equivalent mass of TNT
(mTNT) and the distance from the groundzero point of the explosion (r).
The empirically derived scaling law is:

ze

r
1/ 3
mTNT

(1.1)

Where ze is the scaled distance (m kg-1/3)

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Estimation of overpressure

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You can get scaled

overpressure, (Ps) if you
know ze

Estimation of overpressure

(1.2)

Where

Ps scaled overpressure
Po peak side - on overpressure
Pa ambient pressure

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Po
Ps
Pa

Po

Pa

1616

ze
1

0.048

ze
1

4 .5

ze
1

0.32

ze
1

1.35

(1.3)

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You can also use this

equation

Example
overpressure at a distance of 30 meter from
the explosion

Solution

ze

ze

1/ 3
mTNT

30 m

1.0 kg

1/ 3

30 m kg -1/3

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Questio
One
n kg of TNT is exploded. Compute the

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You can get scaled

overpressure, (Ps) if you
know ze

Example

Po
0.055
101 .3 kPa

Po 0.055 101 .3
Po 5.6 kPa or 0.81 psi
This overpressure will cause minor damage
to house structure (slide no. 15)

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From the figure, scaled overpressure is 0.055

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Using Probit to
estimate the impact of
explosion

Y k1 k 2 lnV
Where:
Y = Probit Variable
k1 and k2 = constants
V = Causitive Variable

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Probit equation

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Example

a) What fraction of structures will be

damaged by exposure to this
overpressure?
b) What fraction of people exposed will die
as a result of lung hemorrhage?
c) What fraction will have eardrums
ruptured?

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A blast produces a peak overpressure of

47,000 N/m2.

Solution
Probit Equation

Structural damage:

Y 23.8 2.92 lnPo

Death from lung
hemorrhage:
Y 77.1 6.91 lnPo
Eardrum ruptures:

Y 15.6 1.93 lnPo

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Y k1 k 2 lnV

Solution

Structural damage:

Y 7.61
Death from lung
hemorrhage:
Y
Eardrum ruptures:

2.76

Y 5.163

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For Po 47,000 N/m

Percent Affected

Structural Damage

(%)
99.6

Death (Lung Hem)

0 (Y is negative)

Eardrum ruptures

56

The blast is not serious enough to expect

fatalities, but serious enough to cause
extensive damage to surrounding
structures and to rupture eardrums of

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From probit-percentage conversion

table
Percent Affected

 The most dangerous and destructive

explosions in the process industries.
The explosions occur in a sequence of
steps:
Sudden release of a large quantity of flammable
vapour (e.g. a vessel containing a superheated
and pressurised liquid ruptures).
Dispersion of the vapour throughout the plant
site while mixing with air.
Ignition of the resulting vapour cloud.

Any process containing quantities of

liquefied gases, volatile superheated liquid,

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Vapour Cloud Explosions

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Vapour Cloud Explosions

Vapour Cloud Explosions

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Example: Flixborough, England (1974)

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http://www.hse.gov.uk/comah/sragtech/caseflixboroug74.htm

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http://www.hse.gov.uk/comah/sragtech/caseflixboroug74.htm

N
C
O
N
F
I
N
E
D

A
P
O
R

L
O
U
D

X
P
L
O
S
I
O
N
S

An overpressure happens when a gas

cloud detonates or deflagrates in open air
rather than simply burns.

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What Happens to a Vapor Cloud?

Edges start to burn through deflagration

(steady state combustion).
Cloud will disperse through natural convection.
Flame velocity will increase with containment
and turbulence.
If velocity is high enough cloud will detonate.
If cloud is small enough with little confinement
it cannot explode.

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Cloud will spread from too rich, through

flammable range to too lean.

What Favors Hi Overpressures?

Prevents escape,
increases turbulence

Cloud
composition
Unsaturated
molecules all
ethylene clouds
explode; low ignition
energies; high flame
speeds

Good weather
Stable atmospheres,
low wind speeds

Large Vapor
Clouds
Higher probability of
finding ignition
source; more likely to
generate
overpressure

Source
Flashing liquids; high
pressures; large, low
or downward facing
leaks

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Confinement

Vapour Cloud Explosions

The type and quantity of material released and
vaporised
The time span from the onset of the leakage until the
ignition
The configuration of the space where the leakage
took place.
Probability of ignition of the cloud (position & number
of ignition sources)
Distance traveled by the cloud before ignition
Efficiency of explosion

Studies have shown that:

Ignition probability increases as the size of vapour
cloud increases

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Some of parameters that affect VCE

behaviour:

 According to this method, the power of the

vapor cloud explosion equates to an
equivalent mass of TNT (tri-nitrotoluene)
that would produce the same explosive
power.
Mass of
Energy of
hydrocarbo
Empirical
n
explosion
1
efficiency
m
H c
Equivalent
MW
m

mass of
TNT
ETNT
TNT
The energy of explosion
of the TNT = 4686 kJ/kg

explosion/
Heat of
combustion

Molecular
weight of
hydrocarbo
n

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TNT Equivalency Method

 The explosion efficiency is one of the major

problems in the equivalency method.
The method calculates the overpressure of
an explosion without taking into
consideration the space configuration
where the explosion takes place (degree of
confinement/congestion) an explosion in
the middle of an area full of equipment, or
in a closed space, will exhibit different
power from an equivalent one in an open
space.
The advantage of this method is that it is

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TNT Equivalency Method

TNT Equivalency Method

Determine the total quantity of flammable

material involved in the explosion.
Estimate the explosion efficiency, and calculate
the equivalent mass of TNT .
Use the scaling law to estimate the peak side-on
overpressure.
Estimate the damage for common structures and
process equipment.
NOTE: The procedure can be applied in
reverse to estimate the quantity of material

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Procedure to estimate the damage

associated with an explosion using the TNT
equivalency method:

Example 1

a) Determine the equivalent amount of TNT

b) Determine the side-on peak overpressure
at a distance of 50 m from the blast, and
estimate the possible impact to the
structure.
Assume an explosion efficiency of 2%.

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One thousand kilograms of methane escapes

from a storage vessel, mixes with air, and
explodes.

Solution to Example 1
mTNT

0.02 1000 (1 / 0.016)(802.3)

214 kg TNT
ETNT
r

b)

ze

Po
Ps
Pa

From the figure, Ps =

0.25
So, Po= 25.3 kPa

1/ 3
mTNT

8.4 m/kg 1/3

This overpressure will demolish steel

panel buildings or ruptures oil storage

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a)

 TNO is the Netherlands Organization for

Applied Scientific Research.
This method suggests that damaging
explosion can only occur when flame
acceleration takes place within a plant
structure truly unconfined explosions are
unlikely to occur.
The basis for this model: the energy of
explosion depends highly on the level of
congestion and depends less on the fuel in
the cloud.

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TNO Multi-Energy Method

TNO Multi-Energy Method

Turbulence effects causing accelerating flame

speed as the flame passes obstacles in a plant
structure, eventually giving explosive
overpressure effects.
Highly congested plant structures give high
overpressures
Flammable gases with high laminar burning
velocity give high overpressures
The degree to which leaks of flammable gases fill
a structure larger the volumes of structure give
higher overpressures

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Main factors affecting vapour cloud

explosions in chemical plant structures:

TNO Multi-Energy Method

Determine the charge combustion energy, E,
where E is determined by multiplying the
confined volume occupied by a vapour cloud
with the heat of combustion of a stoichiometric
hydrocarbon-air mixture (3.5 x 106 J/m3).
Estimate the blast strength (between 1 10).
Determine the Sachs-scaled distance using the
Distance
following equation:
from the

Sachsscaled
distance
The charge
combustion energy

E / Pa 1/ 3

charge (m)
Ambient
pressure

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Procedures :

TNO Multi-Energy Method

The Sachs-scaled blast side-on overpressure is
read from the blast chart.
The overpressure is given by:

Po Ps Pa

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Procedures :

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Consider the explosion of a propane-air

vapour cloud confined beneath a storage
tank. The tank is supported 1 m off the
ground by concrete piles. The concentration
of vapour in the cloud is assumed to be at
stoichiometric concentrations.
A cloud of 2094 m3 confined below the tank,
representing the volume underneath the
tank. Determine the overpressure from this
vapour cloud explosion at a distance of 100
m from the blast using the TNO multi-energy
method. Assume the blast strength of 7 for

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Example 2

Solution to Example 2

E / Pa

1/ 3

100 m

7.329 10 J /101,325 P
9

1/ 3

2.4

From the blast chart,

Ps 0.13
Po Ps Pa 0.13 101 .3 kPa 13.2 kPa 1.9 psi

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E (2094 m3 )(3.5 10 6 J/m 3 ) 7.329 10 9 J

 BLEVE, pronounced /blvi/ ("blevvy"), is an

acronym for Boiling Liquid Expanding
Vapour Explosion".
It is the result of a liquid within a container
reaching a temperature well above its
boiling point at atmospheric temperature,
causing the vessel to rupture into two or
more pieces.
A BLEVE can occur when fire impinges on
the tank shell at a point or points above the
liquid level of the contents of the tank.
This impingement causes the metal to

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BLEVE

 BLEVEs can also be caused by an external

fire near the storage vessel causing heating
of the contents and pressure build-up.
Such explosions can be extremely
hazardous.
BLEVEs can result from mechanical damage
to a tank, as well.
This damage can be the result of a train
derailment, traffic accident, or other
physical shock.
When a BLEVE occurs, debris may travel
hundreds of feet, with tremendous force,

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BLEVE

 If the vessel is ruptured the vapour

portion may rapidly leak, lowering the
pressure inside the container and releasing
a wave of overpressure from the point of
rupture.
This sudden drop in pressure inside the
container causes violent boiling of the

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BLEVE

 The pressure of this vapour can be

extremely high, causing a second, much
more significant wave of overpressure (an
explosion) which may completely destroy
the storage vessel and project fragments
over the surrounding area.
If the substance involved is flammable, it is
likely that the resulting cloud of the
substance will ignite after the BLEVE has
occurred, forming a fireball and possibly a
fuel-air explosion, also termed a vapour
cloud explosion (VCE).

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BLEVE

BLEVE

A fire develops adjacent to a tank containing a

liquid.
The fire heats the walls of the tank.
The liquid-filled portion stays cool due to heatsink effects, but the steel around the vapor
space rapidly heats up.
If the flames reach the tank walls or roof where
there is only vapour and no liquid to remove the
heat, the tank metal temperature rises until the
tank loses its structural strength.

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The most common type of BLEVE is caused

by fire.
The steps are as follows:

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BLEVE

Blast wave
Shock wave
Explosion injury
Explosion behavior parameters
Detonation and deflagration
Overpressure
Blast damage from overpressure
Usage of probit to estimate impact of explosion

VCE
TNT Equivalency Method
TNO Multi-Energy Method

BLEVE

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Summary