CPE 400 / 600

Computer Communication Networks

Lecture 26
Physical Layer
Ch 4: Digital Transmission

Slides are modified from Behrouz A. Forouzan

Lecture 26: Outline

Chapter 4: Digital Transmission

4.1 Digital-to-Digital Conversion

o Line coding
o Block coding
o Scrambling

4.2 Analog-to-Digital Conversion

o Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
o Delta Modulation (DM)

4.3 Transmission Modes

o Parallel Transmission
o Serial Transmission
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41DIGITALTODIGITALCONVERSION
We can represent digital data by using digital signals.
The conversion involves three techniques: line coding,
block coding, and scrambling.
o Line coding is always needed.
o Block coding and scrambling may or may not be needed.

Line coding and decoding

Signal element versus data element

Although the actual bandwidth of a digital signal is infinite,
the effective bandwidth is finite.

Example
A signal is carrying data in which one data element is
encoded as one signal element ( r = 1).
If the bit rate is 100 kbps, what is the average value of
the baud rate if c is between 0 and 1?
Solution
Weassumethattheaveragevalueofcis1/2.Thebaudrateisthen

Example
The maximum data rate of a channel is
Nmax = 2 B log2 L (defined by the Nyquist formula).
Does this agree with the previous formula for Nmax?
Solution
AsignalwithLlevelsactuallycancarrylog2Lbitsperlevel.
If each level corresponds to one signal element and we assume the
averagecase(c=1/2),thenwehave

Effect of lack of synchronization

Example
In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1 percent
faster than the sender clock.
How many extra bits per second does the receiver receive
if the data rate is 1 kbps?
How many if the data rate is 1 Mbps?
Solution
At1kbps,thereceiverreceives1001bpsinsteadof1000bps.

At 1 Mbps, the receiver receives 1,001,000 bps instead of 1,000,000

bps.
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Line coding schemes

Unipolar NRZ scheme

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Polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I schemes

level of voltage determines
value of the bit

inversion or lack of inversion

determines value of the bit

Both have an average signal rate of N/2 Bd.

Both have a DC component problem.

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Example
A system is using NRZ-I to transfer 10-Mbps data.
What are the average signal rate and minimum bandwidth?

Solution
TheaveragesignalrateisS=N/2=500kbaud.
Theminimumbandwidthforthisaveragebaudrateis
Bmin=S=500kHz.

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Polar RZ scheme

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Polar biphase: Manchester and differential Manchester schemes

Transition at the middle is used for synchronization

The minimum bandwidth is 2 times that of NRZ

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Bipolar schemes: AMI and pseudoternary

We use three levels: positive, zero, and negative.

In mBnL schemes, a pattern of m data elements is

encoded as a pattern of n signal elements in which 2 m Ln
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Multilevel: 2B1Q scheme

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Multilevel: 8B6T scheme

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Multilevel: 4D-PAM5 scheme

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Multitransition: MLT-3 scheme

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Summary of line coding schemes

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Block coding concept

Block coding is normally referred to as mB/nB coding;
it replaces each m-bit group with an n-bit group.

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Using block coding 4B/5B with NRZ-I line coding scheme

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4B/5B mapping codes

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Substitution in 4B/5B block coding

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Example
We need to send data at a 1-Mbps rate.
What is the minimum required bandwidth, using a
combination of 4B/5B and NRZ-I or Manchester coding?
Solution
First4B/5Bblockcodingincreasesthebitrateto1.25Mbps.
TheminimumbandwidthusingNRZIisN/2or625kHz.
TheManchesterschemeneedsaminimumbandwidthof1MHz.
Thefirstchoiceneedsalowerbandwidth,buthasaDCcomponent
problem;
Thesecondchoiceneedsahigherbandwidth,butdoesnothaveaDC
componentproblem.
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8B/10B block encoding

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AMI used with scrambling

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Two cases of B8ZS scrambling technique

B8ZS substitutes eight consecutive zeros with 000VB0VB.

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Different situations in HDB3 scrambling technique

HDB3 substitutes four consecutive zeros with 000V or
B00V depending on the number of nonzero pulses after
the last substitution.

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Lecture 26: Outline

Chapter 4: Digital Transmission

4.1 Digital-to-Digital Conversion

o Line coding
o Block coding
o Scrambling

4.2 Analog-to-Digital Conversion

o Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
o Delta Modulation (DM)

4.3 Transmission Modes

o Parallel Transmission
o Serial Transmission
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42ANALOGTODIGITALCONVERSION
A digital signal is superior to an analog signal.
The tendency today is to change an analog signal to
digital data.
In this section we describe two techniques, pulse
code modulation and delta modulation.

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Components of PCM encoder

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Three different sampling methods for PCM

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Nyquist sampling rate for low-pass and bandpass signals

According to the Nyquist theorem,
the sampling rate must be at least 2 times the highest
frequency contained in the signal.

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Recovery of a sampled sine wave for different sampling rates

Sampling at the
Nyquist rate can create
a good approximation of
the original sine wave.
Oversampling can also
create the same
approximation, but is
redundant and
unnecessary.
Sampling below the
Nyquist rate does not
produce a signal that
looks like the original
sine wave.
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Sampling of a clock with only one hand

The second hand of a clock has a period of 60 s.
According to the Nyquist theorem, we need to sample hand every 30 s

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Examples
An example of under-sampling is the seemingly backward
rotation of the wheels of a forward-moving car in a movie.
A movie is filmed at 24 frames per second.
If a wheel is rotating more than 12 times per second, the
under-sampling creates the impression of a backward
rotation.

Telephone companies digitize voice by assuming a maximum

frequency of 4000 Hz.
The sampling rate therefore is 8000 samples per second.
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Example
A complex low-pass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz.
What is the minimum sampling rate for this signal?

Solution
The bandwidth of a low-pass signal is between 0 and f,
where f is the maximum frequency in the signal.
Therefore, we can sample this signal at 2 times the highest
frequency (200 kHz).
The sampling rate is therefore 400,000 samples per second.

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Quantization and encoding of a sampled signal

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Example
A telephone subscriber line must have an SNRdB above 40.
What is the minimum number of bits per sample?

Solution
We can calculate the number of bits as

Telephone companies usually assign 7 or 8 bits per sample.

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Example
We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate,
assuming 8 bits per sample?

Solution
The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0 to
4000 Hz. So the sampling rate and bit rate are calculated
as follows:

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Components of a PCM decoder

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Example
We have a low-pass analog signal of 4 kHz.
If we send the analog signal, we need a channel with a
minimum bandwidth of 4 kHz.
If we digitize the signal and send 8 bits per sample, we need
a channel with a minimum bandwidth of 8 4 kHz = 32 kHz.

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The process of delta modulation

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Delta modulation components

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Lecture 26: Outline

Chapter 4: Digital Transmission

4.1 Digital-to-Digital Conversion

o Line coding
o Block coding
o Scrambling

4.2 Analog-to-Digital Conversion

o Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
o Delta Modulation (DM)

4.3 Transmission Modes

o Parallel Transmission
o Serial Transmission
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43TRANSMISSIONMODES
The transmission of binary data across a link can be
accomplished in either parallel or serial mode.
In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each
clock tick.
In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock tick.
While there is only one way to send parallel data,
there are three subclasses of serial transmission:
asynchronous, synchronous, and isochronous.

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Data transmission and modes

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Parallel transmission

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Serial transmission

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Asynchronous transmission
We send 1 start bit (0) at the beginning and 1 or more stop
bits (1s) at the end of each byte.
There may be a gap between each byte.

It is asynchronous at the byte level, bits are still

synchronized; their durations are the same.

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Synchronous transmission
We send bits one after another without
start or stop bits or gaps.
It is the responsibility of the receiver to group the bits.

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