Advanced Power Systems

ECE 0909.402-02, 0909.504-02

Lecture 3: Electric Power Fundamentals

5 February 2007
Dr. Peter Mark Jansson PP PE
Associate Professor Electrical and Computer Engineering

Aims of Todays Lecture

Course Training Tours (Mon 3-8PM, Fri 12-5PM)
Part One: Overview of Chapter 2 concepts
A summary ofch. 2 concepts
Power Factor Correction
Three Phase Systems
Power Supplies and Power Quality
Part Two: Overview ch. 3 concepts
Early developments
Electric industry today (NUGS, IPPs, QFs)
Polyphase synchronous generators

Aims of Todays Lecture (cont)

15 minute stretch break at 6
Part Two: An intro to ch. 3 concepts

Heat engines, steam cycles and efficiencies

GTs, CCs, Baseload Plants and LDCs
T&D
Regulatory impacts (PUHCA, PURPA, FERC)

Power factor correction?

Why correct power factor?

1/5th of all grid losses may be due to poor power factor
(>$2B/yr), the outage of 2003 was made more severe by
extremely high reactive demand, all transformers are
rated on kVA not watts, all these economic, efficiency and
reliability benefits can be achieved at a very low cost

Power factor correction

Adding capacitive impedance in parallel with the load enables the

current to oscillate between the inductors and capacitors rather
than being drawn from the utility system or the customer
transformer.
Capacitors are rated by volt-amps-reactive VARs that they supply
at the system voltage in which they are installed, and PF
correction is a straightforward engineering design

Last Weeks pf correction example

An industrial customers service entrance substation is rated
at 1MVA (1,000kVA) and is at 95% capacity. The plant now
experiences a power factor of 80%. A new manufacturing
line is planned that will increase power demand 125kW. How
many kVAR of capacitance should be added to avoid
purchasing additional substation transformer capacity?

Real power (at present) = (0.8)(0.95)(1,000kVA) = 760kW

Phase angle = cos-1(0.8) = 36.87o
Apparent power = (1,000)(0.95) = 9,500 Volt-Amps
If demand grows from 760kW to 885kW Apparent Power will
grow to Real/PF = 885/(0.8) = 1106kVA > 1MVA capacity
Reactive Power = Q = VI sin = 1106(0.6) = 664kVAR

PF correction example (cont)

An industrial customers service entrance substation is rated at 1MVA (1,000kVA) and is

at 95% capacity. The plant now experiences a power factor of 80%. A new
manufacturing line is planned that will increase power demand 125kW. How many
kVAR of capacitance should be added to avoid purchasing additional substation
transformer capacity?

For substation to handle the growth, power factor must

improve to at least PF = 885kW/1,000kVA = 0.885
Phase angle now will be = cos-1(0.885) = 27.75o
Reactive Power (Q) = VI sin = 1000(0.4656) = 466
kVAR
Difference in reactive power must be supplied by the
capacitor bank: 664 466 = 198 kVAR
Specify a >= 200 kVAR cap bank at industrial
customers service voltage

What is a 200 kVAR cap bank?

Rating Capacitor Banks in terms of KVAR
is quite common in power systems,
however, there are times when the actual
value of the capacitance is needed:
Voltage/Current in Capacitor: V=(1/C)I
Current & Power in Capacitor is all reactive:
VAR = VI = V(CV) = CV2
C (farads) = VARs/(V2)

What is a 200 kVAR cap bank?

C (farads) = VARs/(V2)
We need therefore to know what voltage the
capacitance will be provided at, in our case 480V

C farads

VARs
200kVARs

2
2
V
2 60 (480)

2 10 VARs
3

2.3 10 F 2.3mF
6
86.86 10
5

LM #1
In an industrial facility (1, 240V) with a
10-kVA transformer, the real power of a
motor is 4.2kW (pf=0.6). A second motor,
similar to the above needs to be added.
Show transformer loads
Determine kVAR and pf required to meet
request
How much capacitance is this (farads)?

3-phase systems
Typically, 3-phase systems are connected in
one of four ways: (Supply Load)

Wye Wye
Wye Delta
Delta Wye
Delta Delta

What are these?

Wye (Y) connections

What is meant by Phase & Line

Voltages?
In a 3-phase Wye-connected system which
is quite common (all the negative legs of
generators or transformers are tied to
ground) the following is true:
Voltages measured with respect to the neutral
wire are called phase voltages V (Va, Vb, Vc)
Voltages measured between phases are called
line voltages VL or VLL (Vab, Vbc, Vac )
In power systems we typically use Line Voltage

Power in 3 Systems
In 3-phase (3) systems to determine power including Apparent (VA), Reactive (VAR), and
Real (Watts) - we need to understand these
relationships:
S3 3V phase I line

Vline
3
I line 3Vline I line
3

Q3 3Vline I line sin _(VAR )

P3 3Vline I line cos _( watts )

Power in 3 Systems
Most widely used service to buildings is a
4-wire , 3, 208 V service.
To determine line voltage of each phase
alone we need to understand this
relationship: VLine = 3 Vphase=
Therefore: Vphase= = VLine/ 3 = 208V/ 3 =
120V

Power in 3 Systems
Many buildings also use a 4-wire , 3, 480V
service.
To determine line voltage of each phase
alone we use the same relationship:
VLine = 3 Vphase=
Therefore: Vphase= = VLine/ 3
= 480V/ 3 = 277V
See Figure 2.15 on page 74 of our Renewable and Efficient EPS text

LM #2: 3 Power Distribution

The Atlantic City Electric Power System
distributes electricity from its substations to
its customers at a 3-phase line voltage
nominally 12-kV.
What is its Phase Voltage?

Delta ()

Y and current, voltage & power

Y-connected
I L = I
VLL = 3 V Apparent Power3 = 3 VLL IL
Real Power3 = 3 VLL ILcos

-connected
VLL = V
IL = 3 I Apparent Power3 = 3 VLL IL
Real Power3 = 3 VLL ILcos

Example
In an industrial facility (3, 208V-Y) the
real power used is 80kW with single phase
motors and a poor power factor is the result
(0.5) leading to 5% power losses (4kW).
With capacitors and 3 motors the power
factor is increased to 0.9 what losses are
there now?

Solution
P3 80kW 3VL I L cos S3 cos
80
S3 cos S3 0.5 80kW S3
160kVA
0.5
S3
160kVA
IL

0.444kA 444 A
3 VL
3 208V
80
After _ pf 0.9 S3
88.9kVA
0.9
S3
88.9kVA
IL

0.247kA 247 A
3 VL
3 208V

Final Solution
Current losses are 4kW (5%)
Losses (I2R), R is constant
Losses after correction
2

(247)
PL 4kW
1.24kW
2
(444)
1.24
Loss %
1.55%
80

LM #3
In an industrial facility (3, 208V-Y) the
real power used is 250kW and a poor power
factor exists (pf = 0.6).
What is the phase current? I
What is the line current? IL
What phase voltage? V
How much current is saved if pf is unity?

Power supplies
Devices that convert ac power to dc power
for electronic applications
What devices use power supplies: tvs, pcs,
copiers, portable phones, motor controls,
thermostats just about everything with an
IC or digital display or any electronic control
6% of US electricity flows through PS

Linear and switching

Linear PS: use transformers to drop voltage and
then rectifier and filter, 50-60% efficient in
conversion
Switching PS: use rapid transistorized switches to
effectively reduce available power and use a dc-dc
converter to adjust dc output voltage to desired
levels, 70-80% efficient in conversion
Typical US household has ~20 devices using PS
which consume between 5-8% of electricity and
account for over $4B each year (500 kWh/home)

Power supplies
Described in text (pp.77-86) and introduced
in this course because they can have a
significant impact on power quality as well
as very sensitive to poor power quality
Also circuits similar to the buck converter
can both raise and lower dc voltages to
enhance performance of photovoltaic arrays
we will design later in the course

Power quality & THD

Current and voltage waveform irregularities

Under-,over-voltage and current

Sag, swell of V and I
Surges, spikes and impulses
Electrical noise
Harmonic distortion
Outages

Power quality and interruptions

Few cycles or momentary sags can cause
major disruption for automated
manufacturing equipment:
PLCs
ASDs

Digital economy businesses can be even

more disrupted by poor power quality

Sources of eroding quality

Utility (line side):

Under-,over-voltage and current

Sag, swell of V and I
Surges, spikes and impulses
Outages

Customer (load side):

Waveform noise (poor grounding)
Harmonic distortion

Solutions to eroding quality

Utility (line side):

filters
capacitors and inductors
high energy surge arrestors
fault current limiters
dynamic voltage restorers

Customer (load side):

UPS, voltage regulators, surge suppressors, filters and
various other line conditioning equipment

Overview of harmonics
Any periodic function can be represented by a Fourier series
made up of an infinite sum of sines and cosines with
frequencies that are multiples of the fundamental (60Hz)
frequency
Frequencies that are multiples of the fundamental are called
harmonics (ie, 5th harmonic is 300 Hz)
Harmonic distortion does not occur from loads using the
basic components of R, L & C
Electronic loads (power supplies, electronic ballasts,
adjustable speed drives, etc.) distort
Periodic functions that are sine or cosine only have no even
harmonics (called halfwave symmetry half and full wave
rectifiers will exhibit only odd harmonics)

CFLs and THD

60-watt Incandescent Light
V and I in phase
No THD

18-watt Compact Fluorescent Light

Phase shift (inductive load)
Significant wave notching
Numerous harmonics

Total harmonic distortion

I I I
THD
I1
2
2

2
3

2
4

Sample problem LM#4

Calculate the THD for the following CFL:
Harmonic

1
3
5
7
9

rms Current (A)

0.18
0.14
0.09
0.05
0.03

New homework
HW 3 due next Monday
will be posted on web
2.9, 2.12, 2.13, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.6, 3.7,
3.9, 3.10, 3.11

Chapter 3 concepts and content

Part Two: An intro to ch. 3 concepts

Early developments
T&D
Polyphase synchronous generators
Heat engines, steam cycles and efficiencies
GTs, CCs, Baseload Plants and LDCs
Electric industry today (NUGS, IPPs, QFs)
Regulatory impacts (PUHCA, PURPA, FERC)

Electricity History
Early Development (1796 1838)

First Chemical Battery Volta 1796

Electric Arc Lamp Davy / Moyes 1801
Early Transformer Schweigger 1811
First Electromagnet Sturgeon 1825
First E-M Induction Generator DC Faraday
1831
Thin Rod Carbon Lamp Filament Jobart 1838

History 2
The First 100 Years (1840 - 1940)

Six-pole reliable commercial generator 1840

Subdivided iron core transformer 1850
First self-excited dynamo patented 1855
Iron wire replaced by copper for distribution
1877
First DC electric power system Pearl Street 1879
First AC generation/transf./transm. Design 1888
Rotary Converters 1893

History 3
The First 100 Years (1840 - 1940)
continued

2-3 phase transformers 1894

OCBs invented 1897
First load dispatchers office (NYC) 1903
First AC transmission 60kV 200 miles 1905
High voltage suspension insulator 1906
First automatic electrical substation 1914
First flourescent / neon tube lighting 1934

History 4
U.S. Shift from DC to AC

1890: 90% DC
1897: 62% DC
1902: 39% DC
1907: 28% DC
1942: 1% DC

Transmission Lines
Purpose: to connect power generation to loads
Design Types:
Bulk transmission: large quantities of power to
distribution substations (Hi voltage - >= 34.5 kV)
Radial transmission: often called distribution lines
to deliver power to customer loads (Lo voltage <=
23kV)

Rule of Thumb: Power delivered V2

Fundamentals
Transmission / Distribution Lines
ROLE: Minimize i2R losses in system
Transmission: 69, 138, 230, 500, 765 kV
Distribution: 4 - 34.5 kV (12-13.8 kV
common)

Types of Transmission
Construction
Overhead: most common in rural and semi-rural
utility systems, least expensive, easiest to
maintain, most used for bulk power transmission
Underground: most common in center-city,
urban and planned development systems, subject
to higher failures and larger per unit cost length,
capacitance problems over long lengths

Typical Construction O/H

Typical Construction O/H

Towers / Poles to increase phase to ground
distance and limit exposure to the public
Cross arms separate phases from each other
and from ground potential (pole is 90%
ground)
Insulators to separate phase voltage from
ground potential and maximize electrostatic
creep length
Ground/Static Wire - for lightning protection

Typical Construction O/H

Conductors typically ACSR (aluminum
conductor steel reinforced) one or more per
phase with appropriate diameter to carry
current and load at given voltage and
strength to handle spans between towers
and associated dead and live loads

Clearances
Nominal line voltage - Maximum voltage,

50 kV - 72,5 kV
110 kV - 123 kV
150 kV - 170 kV
220 kV - 245 kV
380 kV - 420 kV

Basic distance, Safe distance

0,70 m
1,20 m
1,60 m
2,60 m
3,60 m

1,70 m
2,20 m
2,60 m
3,60 m
4,60 m

SAFE DISTANCE: divide max. voltage by 100 add 1

Underground cables

Application: underground, underwater

Trench Installation or Duct Bank
Direct Buried or Cable Tray
External sheath or ground wrap
Riser Poles/Terminations
Manholes for Duct Bank Installations\

Distribution Cables

Cross sections

UD Cable Cross sections

25kV primary: phase conductor
is concentrically stranded (Cu or
Al) a semi-cond. polyethylene
shield, polyethylene primary
insulation (white), another shield,
and concentric neutral (Cu or Al)
wrapped around outer shield.
Jacketed Cable (shown below)
includes an additional insulated
polyethylene jacket over neutral

UD Shielded Cable
Shielded cable: Uses
a copper longitudinal
corrugated tape shield
in place of the
concentric neutral
strands

3-phase transmission cable

5-46 kV cable: for use in aerial, direct
burial, duct bank, open tray, or
underwater applications

Transmission line models

Series resistance and inductance per unit
length
Shunt capacitance per unit length
These values control the power-carrying
capacity of the transmission line and the
voltage drop at full load

Heat engines, steam cycles and

efficiencies
High Temperature Sink

TH
QH
Heat Engine

Work

QC
Low Temperature Sink

TC

Heat Engine Efficiency after Sadi Carnot

Work out
Efficiency
Energy input
Qhot Qcold
Efficiency
Qhot

max

Tc
1
TH

NOTE: T in oK or oR

LM #5
If a solar pond is able to trap heat beneath is
saline cover at temperature 120o C above its
ambient environment, what is its maximum
Carnot efficiency if the outdoor temperature
is 15o C?

entropy
A measure of the amount of energy unavailable
for work in a natural process

Q
S
T

Sample Heat Engine Problem

A 45% efficient heat engine operates
between 2 reservoirs (750oC and 50oC) and
withdraws 107 J/sec
What is rate of entropy lost in high temperature
reservoir and entropy gained at low temp
reservoir ?
Express engines work in Watts?
What is total entropy gain of system?

Heat Engine Solution

A 45% efficient heat engine operates between 2 reservoirs
(750oC and 50oC) and withdraws 107 J/sec
What is rate of entropy lost in high temperature reservoir?
Sloss = Q/T = 107/1023oK = 9775 J/s-oK

and entropy gained at low temp reservoir ?

Sgain = Q/T = 107x55%/323oK = 17,028 J/s-oK

Express engines work in Watts?

Work = 107x45% = 4.5 x 106 J/s = 4.500kW = 4.5 MW

What is total entropy gain of system?

S = Sgain (17,028 J/s-oK) - Sloss (9775 J/s-oK) = 7253 J/s-oK

NOTE:
The fact that there was a net increase in
entropy tells us that the engine has not
violated the Carnot efficiency limit (which
for this device would have been what?)
Write Your Answer as LM#6

Heat Engines
Historic devices that convert heat energy
into mechanical energy
Steam Engine
Savery 1698 (<1% efficient)
Newcomen 1705 (~1% efficient)
Watt 1770 (separate condenser ~2% efficient)

Steam Turbine (Parsons 1880 ~10% efficient)

Heat Engine Efficiencies

Modern Steam Turbines (~30% efficient)

Gasoline Engines (max. 20% efficient)
Diesel engine (max. 30% efficient)
Gas Turbines (20-30% efficient)
Heat Pumps (C.O.P. of 2-12)
Cogeneration Systems (>70% efficient)

Sample Heat Engine Problem LM #7

A 65% cogeneration system operates
between 2 reservoirs (750oC and 20oC) and
withdraws 3 x 106 J/sec
What is rate of entropy lost in high temperature
reservoir?
Express engines work in Watts?

Polyphase synchronous
generators
How did we arrive at the 3 phase standard
for generators?
What does synchronous mean anyway?
First another look back.

BEGIN HERE

History - EM Induction
Generators
1831 Michael Faradays Electromagnetic
Induction Experiment switch
Soft iron ring

battery

First Evolution: DC Generator

Faraday 1831

Second Evolution: AC Generator

Pixii 1832

AC Generator Output

Lenz Law
When an emf is generated by a change in magnetic flux
according to Faraday's Law, the polarity of the induced
emf is such that it produces a current whose magnetic field
opposes the change which produces it. The induced
magnetic field inside any loop of wire always acts to keep
the magnetic flux in the loop constant. In the examples
below, if the B field is increasing, the induced field acts in
opposition to it. If it is decreasing, the induced field acts in
the direction of the applied field to try to keep it constant.

Lenz Law

synchronous
A fixed-speed machine (generator or motor)
that is synchronized with the utility grid to
which it is connected
To generate 60Hz a two pole generator
would need to rotate at 3600 rpm in order to
provide synchronous output

Multi-pole machines
Two pole machines have 1 N and 1 S pole on their
rotor and their stator
Four pole machines have 4 poles (2 N and 2 S) on
both rotor and stator

1revolution fcycles 60 s
Ns

( p / 2)cycles
s
min
120 f
Ns
p

Synchronous machines LM#8a

How fast would a generator that is
synchronized with the utility grid in France
need to rotate to
Generate 50Hz if it had four (4) poles?

Finally the 3- Wye synchronous generator

For balanced power input and output
Input from the steam turbine
Output to the electric grid/loads

What will be the rotation speed of this most

common generator in the US?
Write Your Answer as LM#8
b

GTs, CCs, Baseload Plants

To overcome Lenzs Law all of these
generators require motive horsepower
Gas Turbines
Steam Turbines
Hydro Turbines

Steam Electric Power Plant

Other power plant schematics

LDCs
What is a Load Duration Curve?
Every load hour of the year (8760 hours of
system load data) arranged from the highest
demand to the lowest demand
A key design tool in determining how to
match generation mix with load profiles of
the utility company

US Industry structure - utilities

Traditionally given a monopoly franchise
In exchange, subject to regulation
State and Federal

Most are distribution only

Many remain vertically integrated (G, T &D)
3200 US electric utilities
Four types

US Industry structure - utilities

Investor Owned (IOU)
5%, generate > 2/3 of power

Federally Owned
TVA, BPA, US Army Corps, sell power non-profit

Other Publicly Owned

Munis, state, 2/3 of this type, <9%

Coops originally set up by REA

US Industry structure
nonutilities
Nonutility Generators (NUGs)
Prior to 1940 ~ 20% of power
By mid-1970s a small fraction
Late 1980s-1990s as regulators changed rules
Some utilities had to sell off their assets
Growth of NUGS in some states was significant

By 2001 NUGs were delivering over 25%

Regulatory impacts (PUHCA, PURPA,

EPAct, FERC Orders 888 & 2000)
Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935
1929 16 holding companies controlled 80% of US utilities
Financial abuses in many large companies
Stock Market Crash left many in bankruptcy
PUHCA provided regulation and break-up of large HCs

Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978

1973 oil crisis led to large rise in utility retail rates
PURPA set up to encourage energy efficiency and renewable
energy technologies

Regulatory impacts (PUHCA, PURPA,

EPAct, FERC Orders 888 & 2000)
Energy Policy Act of 1992
Created new entity EWG
EPAct set up to begin opening up the grid to allow
competitive generators to compete for customers hopefully to
drive down costs and prices

FERC Orders 888 & 2000

888 Requires IOUs to publish nondiscriminatory traiffs that
can be applied to all generators/competitors

2000 Calls for the creation of regional transmission

organizations RTOS to control transmission system operation

Industry today (NUGS, IPPs,

QFs)
NUG non-utility generator
IPP non-PURPA-regulated NUGs
QF meet PURPA requirements for
efficiency or renewable energy use

New homework
HW 3 due next Monday
will be posted on web
2.9, 2.12, 2.13, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.6, 3.7,
3.9, 3.10, 3.11