CS1010 Introduction to Computing

Lecture 04
Computer Hardware
(Microprocessor and Memory)

TODAYS LECTURE
Today we learn about the
microprocessor, the key component,
the brain of a computer.
We will learn about the
function/building blocks of a
microprocessor and its various subsystems.
We also familiarize with memory and
its functions.

MICROPROCESSO
R

MICROPROCESSOR
A microprocessor is a computer processor on a microchip.
Its sometime called logic chips or CPU.
A microprocessor is designed to perform all calculations,
decision making and control functions.
Todays state of the art processors including Pentium,
Athalon, powerpc, etc, they are very complex circuits,
it has tens of millions of transistors.
They work at ultra fast speed, many can perform more
than 1 billions operations per second.
These all microprocessors are made up of same material,
which is semi-conductor means they are made up of
silicon.

 A microprocessor is designed to perform:

Arithmetic calculations
Logic operations
Use small number-holding areas called
registers.

Microprocessor operations include:

Adding
Subtracting
Comparing two numbers
Fetching numbers from one area to
another.

 When computer in turned on, the microprocessor

is designed to get the first instruction from the
basic input/output system (BIOS) that comes
with the computer as a part of its memory.
BIOS loads operating system into computer
memory.
A microprocessor is made from miniaturized
transistors and other circuit elements on a
single semiconductor integrated circuit (IC).
These are made up of semiconductor and silicon.

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
A microprocessor is an integrated circuit
made up of silicon.
A chip is also called IC (aka microchip or just
chip).
An IC is collection of several electronic
components and these all components are
miniaturized.
One electronic component is millionth of a
meter, means it is in microns. The thickness of
human hair is 100 um (microns).

these components are

The components of IC
Transistors
Resistors
Diodes
Capacitors
Wiring
In any IC the most area covered is by its
wiring(means that part of conductor who
carry signal from one point to another).

TRANSISTORS
In digital circuits, transistors are used
as very fast electrical switches,
and arrangements of transistors can
function as logic gates.

MATERIALS
The materials used in IC are:
Silicon semiconductor
Copper conductor (wires, the
connecting path are made up of
coppers)
Silicon Dioxide - insulator

SILICON

MICROPROCESSOR SYSTEM
Microprocessor System is different then
microprocessor as the body is different
then the brain.
If we have the brain, but do not have
hands, feet, then what is the benefit of this
brain.
Similarly, if we have microprocessor but
do not have input, output and storage
devices then this microprocessor is
useless.

 So in Microprocessor system, the

major component is microprocessor,
other components are input, output,
storage and memory. Collectively it
become Microprocessor system.
Personal computer is one very
popular example of Microprocessor
System, another example of
Microprocessor system is Microcontrollers.

MICRO-CONTROLLERS
Micro-controller is a type of microprocessor
system.
The special thing is in micro-controller system these
are all components i.e. microprocessor, memory of
the program (ROM), memory of the data (RAM),
I/O lines to communicate with peripherals &
complementary recourses is on one chip.
Means a complete computer on a chip.
Micro-controllers are found in almost any
electrical device e.g. washing machines,
microwave ovens and in toaster etc

MAIN MEMORY
BOTTLENECK
Microprocessor speed as compare to memory are
quite faster. Todays microprocessors can perform
1 operation in 1 nanosecond ((10-9) or 1 billionth
of asecond), but the memory is respond in 100
nanosecond.
It means if microprocessor say to memory it needs
data, it can say it in 1 nanosecond, but he will get
the response from memory in 100 nanoseconds or
more. It means todays slow memory making
efficiency of a microprocessor less.
It means microprocessor who are capable to
perform at high speed due to slow memory are
performing at low speed.

 To fully efficiently perform the speed

of microprocessor, then we have to
search a method through which
microprocessor quickly access the
memory.
Solution: Invent that memory who work
at the speed of microprocessor, if
microprocessor respond in 1 nanosecond,
then memory also respond in one
nanosecond. There exist such memory.
But the key issue in proposed solution is
they are very expensive.

 Alternate solution is on the same chip we put

very high speed memory, means 1 nanosecond
response time memory. The benefit of this is data
will be available on same speed at which
microprocessor work. To make this solution
effective, the memory we put on the same chip,
insert those data and instructions, which
microprocessor need so often. 90 % of time
microprocessor need same data and instructions.
So, 90 % of time, microprocessor will not fetch
data & instructions from outside, in-fact the
memory which is located near it, 90 % of time it
get data & instruction from the memory which is
near it on the same chip.

ON-CHIP(L1) CACHE MEMORY

So, the 90 % of time microprocessor is working
at full speed.
So, this small, super fast memory that we
locate on the same chip is called On-Chip(L1)
Cache Memory. The frequently used data and
instructions reside on the on-chip cache
memory.
So, whenever microprocessor needs data or
instructions, its check in cache memory, if
they dont find those data & instructions then it
checks the main memory.

Microprocess
Data
or
Cache(L1)
Memory
Bus
RAM

Control
Unit

Bus
Interface
Unit
I/O
Instruction
Decoder
System
Bus

Instruction
Cache(L1)

Arithmetic
& Logic
Unit
Registers
Floating
Point
Unit
Registers

CACHE MEMORY
L2, cache memory, which is on a separate
chip from the microprocessor.
It is the small size and proximity to the
microprocessor makes access times short,
resulting in a boost in performance.
It is an extremely fast, small memory between
CPU and MAIN MEMORY whose access time
is closer to the processing speed of the CPU.
Cache is pronounced as cash.

BUS INTERFACE UNIT

The Bus Interface unit is the hub of communication
between microprocessor and outside world. The data &
instruction coming from memory and I/O devices interact
with Bus Interface Unit.
Bus interface unit first of all identify these data &
instruction that either these are data or instructions. If it
is data then it send to data cache, if it is instruction then
it send it to instruction cache.
Similarly processed data in registers will be send to data
cache from there it comes to bus interface unit, and send
out from the processor.
So, the bus interface unit do both works, it received data
& instruction and send data out from the processor as well.

INSTRUCTION DECODER
Instruction decoder analysis the
instruction, which comes from
instruction cache and decide these
instructions will be send to ALU or
FPU.
It also simplify the instructions so
that ALU or FPU understand it easily.
Means it converts complex
instructions into simple
instructions.

ARITHMETIC & LOGIC

UNIT(ALU)

Also known as Integer Unit.

In this building block mostly computations of

microprocessor took place for example add,
subtract, divide & multiply.
Comparison is also took place here for
example A is greater than B or A is less
than B.
Logical operations also took place.
e.g. A AND B, A OR B.

 Three types of operations took place

here:
Arithmetic
Logic
Comparison.
Modern microprocessors have two
and more ALU, the benefit of it
two instructions can compute
simultaneously.

FLOATING POINT UNIT (FPU)

Another computation unit that found in
modern microprocessor is FPU. Also known as
Numeric Unit. ALU only deals with integers,
the FPU deals with floating point numbers.
Floating point numbers are those numbers
which involved decimals or fractions.
Through FPU you can store very very large and
small numbers in compact form.
So, FPU work is to multiply, divide,
subtract or add fraction numbers.

NOTE
FPUs have importance when you are doing
graphics calculations, design engineering
software or scientific software.
All those work which FPU perform, ALU also
perform the difference is if FPU do it 1 machine
cycle, then ALU can perform same job in 100
machine cycles.
So, without FPU, your processor can work, but
it really slow down the speed.
In previous generations many microprocessors
do not have FPU.

REGISTERS
The registers are attached with ALU & FPU, they
are super fast memory like cache.
When ALU & FPU are doing some calculations,
then they store their intermediate calculations
in registers on a temporary basis. Those
calculation, which results you need after some
time.
When the calculation is finished, then this
processed data from registers goes to data
cache and then to bus interface unit from there
either it goes out to memory or I/O devices.

 Registers are part of the CPU (not

main memory) of a computer.
The length of a register, sometimes
called its word size, equals the
number of bits it can store.

COMMONLY USED
REGISTERS

CONTROL UNIT
Control unit is like a brain or heart of any
microprocessor.
Its most complex element of any
microprocessor.
Control unit is like, in war a field marshal or
general is.
If instructions come, the CU generate its order.
If data have to come, the CU generate its order.
It manages whole process of microprocessors.

PROCESSOR
MANUFACTURERS

The leading manufacturer of personal

computer processor chips are Intel
and AMD.

Used in
Server
Compute
rs

PROCESSOR HEAT
A processor chip generates heat that
could cause the chip to burn up.
Require additional
cooling:
Heat Sinks Fan
Liquid Cooling Technology

LANGUAGE OF A
MICROPROCESSOR

The language of microprocessor is called

Instruction Set.
The instructions must be structured. In
instructions set there are command which a
microprocessor can understand and execute.
These instructions are simple.
Different microprocessor have different
instruction sets for example powerpc
microprocessor instruction set is difficult then
Pentium microprocessor instruction set.

MACHINE CYCLES
Each time the CPU executes an
instruction. It takes a series of
steps. The completed series of steps
is called a machine cycle.
A machine cycle itself can be broken
down into two smaller cycles:
Instruction cycle
Execution cycle

 During the instruction cycle, the CPU

takes two steps:
Fetching: Before the CPU can execute
an instruction, the CU must retrieve
(or fetch) a command or data from
computers memory.
Decoding: Before a command can be
executed, the CU must break down (or
decode) the command into
instructions that correspond to those in
the CPUs instruction set.

 At this point, the CPU is ready to

begin the execution cycle:
Executing: When the command is
executed, the CPU carries out the
instructions in order by converting
them into microcode.
Storing: The CPU may be required
to store the results of an
instruction in memory.

MACHINE CYCLES
Control
RAM
Play
Sound

Unit
System Bus
Instructi
on 1
Play sound sent over bus
Instructi
to CPU.
on 2
Instructi
on 3

Steps:
1. Play sound is sent from RAM to
CPU.(Fetch)
2. Control Unit breaks the command
into instruction set the CPU can
System Bus
RAMhandle.(Decoding)

Play
Sound

CPU tells sound card to

play sound.

Steps:
1. Control Unit executes
instruction 1-3.
(Executing)
2. Command is sent over
system bus to sound card.

Control
Unit
Instructi
on 1
Instructi
on 2
Instructi
on 3
Sound
Card

PIPELINING
Processors starting from Intel Pentium 3 & 4 support
Pipelining. In some & obsolete computers, the CPU
processes only one instruction at one time. i.e., the CPU
waits until an instruction completes all four stages of the
machine cycle before beginning work on the next
instruction.
With Pipelining, the CPU
begins executing a second
instruction before it completes
the first instruction. Pipelining
results faster processing
because the CPU does not
have to wait for one
instruction to complete

WORD SIZE
The length of register equals the
number of bits it can store. Hence, a
register that can store 8 bits is normally
referred to as 8-bit register.
The size of registers is sometimes
called the word size.
The biggest the word size, the fastest
the computer can process a set of data.

 The Intel 4004 dealt with data in

chunks of 4-bits at a time.
Pentium 4 deals with data in chunks
(words) of 32-bit length.
Modern processor deals with 64-bits,
and 128-bits.

THE COMPUTERs INTERNAL

CLOCK
Every microcomputer
has a system clock. The
pace of the system clock is called the clock
speed, and is measured in gigahertz.
When electricity applied, the molecules in the
crystal vibrate millions of times per second.
Example: First PC operated at 4.77 mega hertz.
Hertz = measure of cycles per second.
Megahertz = millions of cycles per second.
Gigahertz = Billions of cycles per second.

 10 hertz means 10 cycles per second.

Therefore, a CPU running at 900 MHZ means
900 millions cycles will occur per second.
Example:
Intel 80286 microprocessor requires 20 cycles
to multiply two numbers. Clock frequency = 12.5
MHz
Intel 80486 or later microprocessor can perform
the same calculation is single cycle.

The latest processors have clock frequency in

GHz.

ARCHITECTURE OF
PROCESSOR

Type of
Architect
ure

Usage.

Processo
rs

CISC
(Complex
Instruction Set
Computer)

Mostly used in
Personal
Computers.

32 Bit
microprocesso
r

RISC
(Reduced
Instruction
Set)

Mostly used in
workstations.

32 Bit
microprocesso
r

EPIC
(Explicitly
Parallel
Instruction
Computing)

Mostly used in
high-end
servers and
workstations.

64 Bit
microprocesso
r

Mostly used in

MULTI-CORE PROCESSORS
Dual-core refers to a CPU that includes two
complete execution cores per processor.
It has combine two processors and their
caches and their controllers onto a single chip.
They each have their own datapath and logic
units.
Example: If you are running a virus scan, and
a word processor, you can set the virus scan
to only run through one core, and word
processor to work on the other core.

Multicore
Processo
r

Dualcore
Processo
r

Quadcore
Processo
r

THE 1st MICROPROCESSOR:

INTEL 4004

Introduced in 1971.
2250 Transistors
4-bit word length
10-micron process
Size was 1/6th of an inch x 1/8th of an
inch.
As powerful as the ENIAC which has
19000 tubes and occupied a large room.
Cost of this processor was 100 $.
Targeted use: Calculators

INTEL PENTIUM-IV (2.2

GHz)

Introduced December, 2001

55 million transistors
32-bit word length( manipulate 4 word)
20 KB L1 Cache.
2 ALUs, each working at 4.4 GHz
128-bit FPU
0.11 micron process (smallest
electronic component size)
Targeted use: PCs and workstations
Cost: around 600 $

ENHANCING THE
CAPABILITY OF A
MICROPROCESSOR
The computing capability of a microprocessor
can be enhanced in many different ways:
By increasing the clock frequency.
By increasing the word-size.
Having more effective caching algorithm and right
cache size.
By increasing the RAM.
By adding more functional units (e.g. ALUs, FPU,
etc)
Improving the architecture (e.g. if a task is perform
in 3, 4 cycles, it performs in 1 or 2 cycles)

MOORES LAW
Gordon Moore who was the cofounder of Intel published a paper in
1965.
Stating in effect that at our rate of
technological development and
advancement in industry the complexity
of integrated circuits double every
year.
Their prediction is still valid.

MEMORY

RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)

Primary storage of a computer is often referred to
as RAM because of its random access capability.
RAMs are volatile memory.
A computers motherboard is designed in a
manner that the memory capacity can be
enhanced by adding more memory chips.
RAM is the place in computer, where
OS, application programs and data
in current use are kept. So that they
can be quickly reached by processor.

 RAM is considered random access

because you can access any memory
cell directly.
Every byte in RAM has an address.
00000000 00000000
00000000 00000001

00000000 00000010

11111111 11111111

More RAM = Better Performance!

TYPES OF RAM

SRAM
SRAM is a type of memory that is faster
and more reliable than the common DRAM
(Dynamic RAM).
The term static is derived from the fact that
it doesnt need to be refreshed like
DRAM.
Access time is around 10 nanoseconds.
Both SRAM and DRAM are volatile, means
that they lose their contents when the power
is turned off.

DRAM
Dynamic RAM needs to be refreshed
thousands of times per second.
The term dynamic indicates that the
memory must be constantly
refreshed.
Access time is around 60-70
nanoseconds.
DRAM is slower than SRAM.

CAPACITY OF RAM

ACCESS TIME OF RAM

READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)

ROM is a non-volatile memory chip.
Data stored in ROM can only be
read.
ROM memory typically stores the
instructions which is known as
BIOS/system boot program.
BIOS loads operating system into
computer memory, check system
hardware, like memory, I/O
devices etc are functioning

TYPES OF ROMs
Type

Usage.

ManufacturedProgrammed ROM

Data is burnt by the manufacturer of the

electronic equipment in which it is used.

User-programmed ROM
or Programmable ROM
(PROM)

User can load and store read-only

programs and data in it.

Erasable PROM (EPROM)

User can erase information stored in it

and the chip can be reprogrammed to
store new information.

Ultra Violet EPROM

(UVEPROM)
Electronically EPROM
(EEPROM)

A type of EPROM chip in which

information is erased by exposing the
chip for some time to ultra-violet light.
A type of EPROM chip in which the
stored information is erased by using
high voltage electric pulses.