INST212D Additional

topics
Note the items in this
presentation are
supplementary to the
presentations covered in
class.

REFORMER
REFORMER

INTRODUCT
ION
The Steam reforming

produces various syng-ases for the chemical and

petrochemical industries, such as Ammonia, Methanol, Hydrogen.

Steam reforming is a well-established catalytic process that convert

natural gas or light hydrocarbons in a mixture containing a major portion
of Hydrogen.
Hydrogen is an important product for the refinery desulphurization and
hydrocracking process units.
The furnace may stand alone, or operate in conjunction with a prereformer, post-reformer or other schemes.

In the furnace, the reforming of steam-hydrocarbon mixtures is

accomplished in catalyst-filled tubes.

In hydrogen plants, in-tube fluid pressures are typically 25 to 30 kg/cm2

with outlet temperatures up to 860C (and even higher) depending on the
process requirements.
The reformer reaction process is endothermic, requiring high level heat
input.
A variety of catalyst (nickel-based) are available for a given feed and
product requirement.
Safe, reliable and efficient operation is needed to meet the users product

Process parameters that must be

controlled

Feed Gas:
Pressure
Flow
Reformer outlet Temperature
Combustion Air Flow
Reformer furnace pressure
Fuel gas:
Pressure
Flow

Centrifugal Compressors
Theory of operation
Imagine a simple case where flow passes through a straight
pipe to enter centrifugal compressor. The simple flow is
straight, uniform and has no vorticity. As illustrated below
1=0 deg. As the flow continues to pass into and through the
centrifugal impeller, the impeller forces the flow to spin faster
and faster. According to a form of Euler's fluid dynamics
equation, known as "pump and turbine equation," the energy
input to the fluid is proportional to the flow's local spinning
velocity multiplied by the local impeller tangential velocity.
In many cases the flow leaving centrifugal impeller is near the
speed of sound (340 metres/second). The flow then typically
flows through a stationary compressor causing it to decelerate.
As described inBernoulli's principle, this reduction in velocity
causes the pressure to rise leading to a compressed fluid.

Compressor Surge
Surge - is the point at which the compressor cannot add enough
energy to overcome the system resistance or backpressure
This causes a rapid flow reversal (i.e. surge). As a result, high
vibration, temperature increases, and rapid changes in axial thrust
can occur. These occurrences can damage the rotor seals, rotor
bearings, the compressor driver and cycle operation. Most
turbomachines are designed to easily withstand occasional surging.
However, if the machine is forced to surge repeatedly for a long period
of time, or if it is poorly designed, repeated surges can result in a
catastrophic failure. Of particular interest, is that while turbomachines
may be very durable, the cycles/processes that they are used within
can be far less robust.

Anti-Surge Compressor

Anti-surge systems measure the air flow rate and the outlet
pressure. If the compressor system approaches the surge line
the anti surge controller will open the anti-surge valve to
reduce the resistance to forward flow thereby creating forward
flow through the compressor. Other process conditions such as
outlet air temperature and inlet pressure may be measured to
feed into the approach to surge line

Industrial Boilers
Boilers are used to provide steam to be used as feed or for
power transmission
Boilers are normally built with Intrinsic controls but will generally
be able to be connected to general plant controls
Process parameters that must be monitored are
Liquid Level
Boiler pressure
Fuel Pressure
Fuel Flow
Combustion air flow

GENERAL BLCOK DIAGRAM OF BOILER

DRUM

BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION

The block diagram of boiler control is shown in

above figure the output from the boiler i.e, the
steam outputs and the level of water is given to
transmitters. The output of transmitter is given to
the controller which act as level indicator
controller and flow indicator controller. If there is
any error corresponding to desired set point, the
signal from controller is given to the converter
which will open or close the valve and the water
will be drained out or filled according to required
steam.
The major loops in boiler control are
1) Combustion control

COMBUSTION CONTROL
A combustion control system is broken down into
(a) fuel control and
(b) combustion air control subsystems.
The
interrelationship
between
these
two
subsystems necessitate the use of fuel air ration
controls.
The primary boiler fuels are coal, oil and gas. The
control of gas and oil fuels requires simplest
controls- i.e a control valve in the fuel line.
The steam drum pressure is an indication of
balance between the inflow and outflow of heat.
Therefore by controlling the steam supply one
can establish balance between the demand for
steam (process load) and supply of water.

HARDWARES USED IN COMBUSTION CONTROL

ON/OFF controls:
Are still used in many industries but are generally
used in small water tube boilers. When the
pressure drops to a present value, fuel & air are
automatically fed into the boiler at predetermined
rate until pressure has risen to its upper limit.

Positioning systems:
Respond to changes in header pressure by
simultaneously positioning the forced draft
damper and fuel valve to a predetermined
alignment. This is not used in liquid , gaseous fuel
fired boilers.

 Metering control system:

In this system control is regulated in accordance
with the measured fuel and air flows. This
maintains combustion efficiency over a wide load
ranges & over long period of time.
Both metering & positioning control systems use
steam header pressure as their primary measured
variable & as a basis for firing rate demand. A
master pressure controller responds to changes
on header pressure & positions the dampers to
control air flow and fuel valve to regulate fuel
supply.

FEEDWATER CONTROL
Feedwater control is the regulation of water to the
boiler drum. It provide a mass accounting system
for steam leading and feedwater entering the
boiler.
Proper boiler operation requires that the level of
water in the steam drum should be maintained
within certain band.
A decrease in this level may uncover boiler tubes,
allowing them to become overheated.
An increase in the level of water may interfere
with the internal operation of internal devices in
the boiler drum.
It is important to made that the water level in the
boiler drum must be above 50% all the time.

 As system for feedwater control must be

designed to maintain the mass balance over
expected boiler load changes so that the level in
the steam drum remains within the required limits
for safe and efficient operation.
Control system complexity is based on number of
measured variables used to initiate control action
and include single element ,two element,3
element and advanced control schemes to
improve accuracy of final control action.

SINGLE ELEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS

For small boilers having relatively high storage
volumes and slow changing loads ,single element
control system is used.
It controls feed water flow based on drum level.
Response is very slow because a change in
feedwater flow takes a long time to show up the
level change.
As a result the steam drum causes water to
increase and decrease in volume, resulting in
false measurements.

TWO ELEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS

The two element system overcome

these inadequacies by using steam flow
changes as a feed forward signal.
This control is used in intermediate
boilers as well as large boilers.
Here the flow and level transmitters are
summed by a computing relay and will
be the set point for feedwater.
Here the response is faster.

THREE ELEMENT CONTROL

Boilers that experiences wide and rapid load
changes require three element control.
Three element control is similar to two element
system except that the water flow loop is closed
rather than open.
The level and steam flow signals are summed and
used as an index or set point to the feedwater
flow. The feedwater flow measurement provides
corrective action for variation in feedwater
pressure.

THREE ELEMENT BOILER CONTROL

Pumps and pressure vessels

Pumps
Pumps can be classified into three
major
groups according to the method they
use to
move the fluid:
Centrifugal Pump
Displacement
Reciprocating Pumps

Centrifugal Pump
A centrifugal pump converts the input
power to
kinetic energy in the liquid by
accelerating the
liquid by a revolving device - an
impeller.

Centrifugal Pump

Operation of Centrifugal
Pump
Fluid enters the pump through the eye
of the
impeller which rotates at high speed.
The fluid
is accelerated radically outward from
the pump
chasing. A vacuum is created at the
impellers
eye that continuously draws more fluid
into the

Operation of Centrifugal
Pump

Questions
What does NPSHA and NPSHR mean?
What is cavitation?
How is NPSHA and NPSHR related to
cavitation?

Cylindrical pressure vessels

Cylinders are widely used for storage
due to their being less expensive to
produce than spheres. However,
cylinders are not as strong as
spheres due to the weak point at
each end.

Cylindrical pressure vessels

Spherical pressure vessels

Spheres however, are much more
costly to manufacture than
cylindrical or rectangular vessels.
This type of storage vessel is
preferred for storage of high pressure
fluids. A sphere is a very strong
structure.

Distillation
What is distillation?
Distillation is a widely used method for separating
mixtures based on differences in the conditions
required to change the phase of components of the
mixture.

How mixtures are

separated
To separate a mixture of liquids, the liquid can be
heated to force components, which have different
boiling points, into the gas phase. The gas is then
condensed back into liquid form and collected.
Repeating the process on the collected liquid to
improve the purity of the product is called double
Although
distillationthe term is most commonly applied to
liquids, the reverse process can be used to separate
gases by liquefying components using changes in
temperature and/or pressure.

What Distillation is used

for?
Distillation is used for many commercial processes,
such as production of:

gasoline
distilled water
xylene
alcohol
paraffin
kerosene

Diagram Showing:
Products obtained
from different
levels of a
distillation process

Types of distillation
Types of distillation include:
simple distillation (),
fractional distillation
(different volatile 'fractions' are collected as they are produced),
destructive distillation
(a material is heated so that it decomposes into compounds for
collection).

Types of Distillation Columns

There are two types of distillation
columns:
1. Batch Columns
2. Continuous Columns

Batch Columns
Batch distillation refers to the use of distillation in
batches, meaning that a mixture is distilled to separate
it into its component fractions before the distillation still
is again charged with more mixture and the process is
repeated.

Continuous Columns
Continuous distillation, a form of distillation, is an on
going separation in which a mixture is continuously
(without interruption) fed into the process and
separated fractions are removed continuously as output
streams.

Main Components of Distillation Columns

Distillation columns are made up of several
components, each of which is used either to transfer
heat energy or enhance material transfer. A typical
distillation contains several major components:
A vertical shell where the separation of liquid components
is carried out.
Column internals such as trays/plates and/or
packings which are used to enhance component
separations.
A reboiler to provide the necessary vaporisation for
the distillation process.
A condenser to cool and condense the vapour leaving
the top of the column.
A reflux drum to hold the condensed vapour from the
top of the column so that liquid (reflux) can be recycled
back to the column.

The vertical shell houses the column internals and together with
the condenser and reboiler, constitute a distillation column. A
typical distillation unit with a single feed and two product streams
is shown below:

Operation and Terminology

The liquid mixture that is to be processed is known as the feed
and this is near the middle of the column to a tray known as the
feed tray.
The feed tray divides the column into a top (enriching or
rectification) section and a bottom (stripping) section.
The feed flows down the column where it is collected at the
bottom in the reboiler.

Operation and Terminology ( Continued )

Heat is supplied to the reboiler to generate vapour. The source
of heat input can be any suitable fluid.
In most chemical plants this is normally steam. In refineries, the
heating source may be the output streams of other columns.
The vapour raised in the reboiler is re-introduced into the unit
at the bottom of the column.
The liquid removed from the reboiler is known as the bottoms
product.
The vapour moves up the column and as it exits the top of
the unit it is cooled by a condenser.
The condensed liquid is stored in a holding vessel known as
the reflux drum.
Some of this liquid is recycled back to the top of the column
and this is called the reflux.
The condensed liquid that is removed from the system is

Operation and Terminology ( Continued )

COLUMN INTERNALS
Trays and Plates
The terms trays and plates are used interchangeably. There are
many types of tray designs, the most common ones are :
Bubble cap trays
A bubble cap tray has riser or chimney fitted over each hole, and
a cap that covers the riser.
The cap is mounted so that there is a space between riser
and cap to allow the passage of vapour.
Vapour rises through the chimney and is directed downward
by the cap, Then it discharging through slots in the cap and
finally it bubbles through the liquid on the tray.

Diagram Showing Bubble

Cap Trays

Valve trays
In valve trays perforations are covered by lift-able caps.
Vapour flows lifts the caps thus self creating a flow area for
the passage of vapour.
The lifting cap directs the vapour to flow horizontally into
the liquid, thus providing better mixing than sieve trays.

Sieve trays
Sieve trays are simply metal plates with holes in them.
Vapour passes straight upward through the liquid on the
plate.
The arrangement, number and size of the holes are design
parameters.
Because of its efficiency, wide operating range, ease of
maintenance and cost factors, sieve and valve trays have
replaced the bubble cap trays in many applications

Liquid and Vapour Flows in a Tray Column

The diagrams below shows the direction of vapour

and liquid flow across a tray and across a column

Liquid and Vapour Flows in a Tray Column ( Continued )

Each tray has 2 conduits, one on each side, called
downcomers.
Liquid falls through the downcomers by gravity from one tray
to the one below it.
A weir on the tray ensures that there is always some liquid
(holdup) on the tray and is designed such that the holdup is
at a suitable height, e.g. such that the bubble caps are
covered by liquid.
Vapour flows up the column and is forced to pass through the
liquid, via the openings on each tray.
The area allowed for the passage of vapour on each tray is
called the active tray area.
The hotter vapour passes through the liquid on the tray
above, it transfers heat to the liquid. This causes, some of the
vapour condenses adding to the liquid on the tray.

Liquid and Vapour Flows in a Tray Column ( Continued )

The condensate is richer in the less volatile components than is in
the vapour.
Additionally, because of the heat input from the vapour, the liquid
on the tray boils, generating more vapour.
This vapour, which moves up to the next tray in the column, is
richer in the more volatile components.
This continuous contacting between vapour and liquid occurs on
each tray in the column and brings about the separation between
low boiling point components and those with higher boiling points.

Distillation Principles

Separation of components from a liquid mixture via

distillation depends on the differences in boiling points of the
individual components.
Depending on the concentrations of the components present,
the liquid mixture will have different boiling point
characteristics.
Distillation processes depends on the vapour pressure
characteristics of liquid mixtures.

Vapour Pressure and Boiling

The vapour pressure of a liquid at a particular temperature is
the equilibrium pressure exerted by molecules leaving and
entering the liquid surface.
The following are some important points regarding vapour
pressure:
Energy
input raises vapour pressure
Vapour pressure is related to boiling
A liquid is said to boil when its vapour pressure equals the
surrounding pressure
The ease with which a liquid boils depends on its volatility
Liquids with high vapour pressures (volatile liquids) will boil at
lower temperatures
The vapour pressure and hence the boiling point of a liquid
mixture depends on the relative amounts of the components in
the mixture

The Boiling Point Diagram

The dew-point is the

temperature at which the
saturated vapour starts to
condense.
The bubble-point is
the temperature at
which the liquid starts
to boil.

The region above the dew-point curve shows the equilibrium

composition of the superheated vapour while the region below
the bubble-point curve shows the equilibrium composition of the
sub- cooled liquid.

Relative Volatility
Relative volatility is a measure of the differences in volatility
between two components and their boiling points.
It indicates how easy or difficult a particular separation will
be.
The relative volatility of component i with respect to
component j is defined as:
yi = mole fraction of component i in the
vapour
xi = mole fraction of component i in the
liquid
If the relative volatility between two components is very close
to one, it is an indication that they have very similar vapour
pressure characteristics. This means that they have very
similar boiling points and therefore, it will be difficult to
separate the two components via distillation.

Factors Affecting Distillation Column

Operation
The performance of a distillation column is determined by
many factors, for example:
feed conditions

state of feed
composition of feed
trace elements that can severely affect the VLE of
liquid mixtures

internal liquid and fluid flow conditions

state of trays (packings)
weather conditions

Feed Conditions
The state of the feed mixture and feed composition affects
the operating lines and hence the number of stages required
for separation.
It also affects the location of feed tray. During operation, if
the deviations from design specifications are excessive, then
the column may no longer be able to handle the separation
task.
To overcome the problems associated with the feed some
columns are designed to have multiple feed points when the
feed is expected to containing varying amounts of
components.