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Units & Measurement (Part - II)

This document discusses measurement and uncertainties in physics. It introduces the International System of Units (SI) as the standard system of measurement. The seven base SI units are defined for length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, luminous intensity, and amount of substance. Derived units and quantities are formed from combinations of the base units. Measurement uncertainties can arise from random errors or systematic errors. Random errors decrease with repeated measurements while systematic errors remain constant. Accuracy refers to closeness to the true value while precision refers to the reproducibility of measurements. Graphs are used to analyze relationships between variables, and the line of best fit is used to determine equations describing these relationships.

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90 views44 pages

Units & Measurement (Part - II)

This document discusses measurement and uncertainties in physics. It introduces the International System of Units (SI) as the standard system of measurement. The seven base SI units are defined for length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, luminous intensity, and amount of substance. Derived units and quantities are formed from combinations of the base units. Measurement uncertainties can arise from random errors or systematic errors. Random errors decrease with repeated measurements while systematic errors remain constant. Accuracy refers to closeness to the true value while precision refers to the reproducibility of measurements. Graphs are used to analyze relationships between variables, and the line of best fit is used to determine equations describing these relationships.

Uploaded by

adimegha
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Physics and Physical

Measurement
Topic 1.2 Measurement and
Uncertainties

The S.I. System

Standards of Measurement

SI units are those of the Systme


International dUnits adopted in 1960

Used for general measurement in most


countries worldwide

Fundamental Quantities

Some quantities cannot be measured in a


simpler form and for convenience they
have been selected as the basic quanitities

They are termed Fundamental Quantities,


Units and Symbols

The 7 Fundamentals

Length
Mass
Time
Electric current
Thermodynamic temp
Luminous Intensity
Amount of a substance

metre
kilogram
second
ampere
Kelvin
candela
mole

m
kg
s
A
K
cd
mol

Derived Quantities

When a quantity involves the measurement


of 2 or more fundamental quantities it is
called a Derived Quantity

The units of these are called Derived Units

Derived Units
Examples
Acceleration ms-2
Momentum
kgms-1 or Ns
Some derived units have been given their own
specific names and symbols
Force
N = kg ms-2
Joule
J = kgm2s-2

Standards of Measurement

Scientists and engineers need to make


accurate measurements so that they can
exchange information

To be useful a standard of measurement


must be Invariant, Accessible and
Reproducible

3 Standards (FYI not tested)

The Meter :- the distance traveled by a beam of light


in a vacuum over a defined time interval ( 1/299 792
458 seconds)

The Kilogram :- a particular platinum-iridium


cylinder kept in Sevres, France

The Second :- the time interval between the

vibrations in the caesium atom (1 sec = time for 9 192


631 770 vibrations)

Conversions

You will need to be able to convert from one


unit to another for the same quanitity

J to kWh (energy)
J to eV (energy)
Years to seconds (time)
And between other systems and SI

****Note: you should be able to do basic conversions now and


others will be developed throughout the year

SI Format

The accepted SI format is


ms-1 not m/s
ms-2 not m/s/s
The IB will recognize work reported with /, but
will only use the SI format when providing info.

Uncertainity and error in


measurement

Errors

Errors can be divided into 2 main classes

Random errors
Systematic errors

Mistakes

Mistakes on the part of an individual such as

misreading scales
poor arithmetic and computational skills
wrongly transferring raw data to the final report
using the wrong theory and equations

These are a source of error but are not


considered as an experimental error

Systematic Errors

Cause a random set of measurements to be


affected in the same way

It is a system or instrument issue

Systematic Errors result from


Badly made instruments
Poorly calibrated instruments
An instrument having a zero error, a form of
calibration
Poorly timed actions
Instrument parallax error
Note that systematic errors are not reduced
by multiple readings

Random Errors

Are due to unpredictable variations in


performance of the instrument and the
operator

Random Errors result from


Vibrations and air convection
Misreading
Variation in thickness of surface being
measured
Using less sensitive instrument when a
more sensitive instrument is available
Human parallax error

Reducing Random Errors

Random errors can be reduced by taking


multiple readings, and eliminating
obviously erroneous result or by averaging
the range of results.

Accuracy
Accuracy is an indication of how close a
measurement is to the accepted value
indicated by the relative or percentage
error in the measurement
An accurate experiment has a low
systematic error

Precision
Precision is an indication of the agreement
among a number of measurements made in
the same way indicated by the absolute
error
A precise experiment has a low random
error

Reducing the Effects of Random


Uncertainties
Take multiple readings
When a series of readings are taken for a
measurement, then the arithmetic mean of
the reading is taken as the most probable
answer
The greatest deviation from the mean is
taken as the absolute error

Absolute/fractional errors and


percentage errors

We use to show an error in a


measurement

(208 1) mm is a fairly accurate


measurement

(2 1) mm is highly inaccurate

Absolute, fractional, and relative


uncertainty
Assume we measure something to be 208 1
mm in length...
1 mm is the absolute uncertainty
1/208 is the fractional uncertainty (0.0048)
0.48 % is the relative (percent) uncertainty

Combining uncertainties
To determine the uncertainty of a calculated
value...

For addition and subtraction, add absolute


uncertainities
For multiplication and division add percentage
uncertainities
When using exponents, multiply the percentage
uncertainty by the exponent

Combining uncertainties

If one uncertainty is much larger than


others, the approximate uncertainty in the
calculated result may be taken as due to
that quantity alone

Significant Figures

The number of significant figures should


reflect the precision of the values used as
input data in a calculation

Simple rule:
For multiplication and division, the number of
significant figures in a result should not
exceed that of the least precise value upon
which it depends

Uncertainties in graphs

Graphical Techniques

Graphing is one of the most valuable tools


in data analysis because
it gives a visual display of the relationship between
two or more variables
shows which data points do not obey the relationship
gives an indication at which point a relationship
ceases to be true
used to determine the constants in an equation
relating two variables

You need to be able to give a qualitative


physical interpretation of a particular
graph

Plotting Graphs
Independent variables are plotted on the xaxis
Dependent variables are plotted on the yaxis
Most graphs occur in the 1st quadrant
however some may appear in all 4

Plotting Graphs - Choice of Ax is

Experimentally speaking, the dependent


variable is plotted on the y axis and the
independent variable is plotted on the x axis.

When you are asked to plot a graph of a


against b, the first variable mentioned is
plotted on the y axis.

Plotting Graphs - Scales

Size of graph should be large, to fill as


much space as possible3/4 rule

choose a convenient scale that is easily


subdivided

Plotting Graphs - Labels

Each axis is labeled with the name of the


quantity, as well as the relevant unit used
Temperature/K
speed/ms-1

The graph should also be given a


descriptive title

Plotting Uncertainties on Graphs

Error bars showing uncertainty are


required - short lines drawn from the
plotted points parallel to the axes
indicating the absolute error of
measurement

Plotting Graphs - Line of Best Fit

When choosing the best fit line or curve it is


easiest to use a transparent ruler
Position the ruler until it lies along an ideal line
The line or curve does not have to pass through
every point
Do not assume that all lines should pass through
the origin
Do not do play connect the dots!

Uncertainties on a Graph
y

Notice that the best


fitting line or curve is
one that passes
through the error
bars of the plotted
points. A straight line
could not accomplish
that with this data set

Analysing the Graph

Often a relationship between variables will first


produce a parabola, hyperbole or an exponential
growth or decay. These can be transformed to a
straight line relationship

General equation for a straight line is


y = mx + c
y is the dependent variable, x is the independent variable, m
is the gradient and c is the y-intercept

Gradients

Gradient = vertical run / horizontal run


gradient = y / x

Dont forget to give the units of the gradient

In lab work, always report the maximum


and minimum gradient

Areas under Graphs

The area under a graph is a useful tool.


For example
on a force vs. displacement graph the area is
work (N x m = J)
on a speed time graph the area is distance (ms-1
x s = m)

Again, dont forget the units of the area

Standard Graphs - linear graphs

A straight line passing through the origin


shows proportionality

yx
k = rise/run

y=kx
Where k is the constant
of proportionality

Standard Graphs - parabola

A parabola shows that y is directly


proportional to x2

x2

i.e. y x2
or y = kx2
where k is the constant of proportionality

Standard Graphs - hyperbola

A hyperbola shows that y is inversely


proportional to x

1/x

i.e. y 1/x
or y = k/x
where k is the constant of proportionality

Standard Graphs - hyperbola


again

An inverse square law graph is also a


hyperbola

1/x2

i.e. y 1/x2
or y = k/x2
where k is the constant of proportionality

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