Ground
Improvement &
Foundation
Engineering
Construction aspects
Size of project
Availability of resources
Expertise available at site
Specifications
Guidance
Time available
Use of accelerated construction techniques
Possible damage to ground water and adjacent
structure
Tolerable level of loading and deformation
Corrosion and aggressive soil conditions
Durability of materials
Reliability of methods of
testing, analysis and design
Good methods of testing, proven methods of
design and analysis should be used and
empirical approaches need to be avoided
Feasibility of construction control and
performance measurements
Documents of quality control and performance
are required in major ground improvement
projects
Benefits of Ground
Improvement
Increase of strength
Reduce distortion under stress (Increases
stress-strain modulus)
Reduce compressibility (volume decreases
due to a reduction in air voids or water
content under loads)
Prevent detrimental physical or chemical
changes due to environmental conditions
(freezing / thawing, wetting / drying)
Reduce susceptibility to liquefaction
Reduce natural variability of borrow materials
and foundation soils
Basics of Geotechnical
Engineering
Void ratio
Porosity
Degree of saturation
Bulk density
Saturated mass density
Consistency limits
Atterberg Limits &
indices
Liquid limit
Plastic limit
Shrinkage limit
Plasticity index:
Flow index
Toughness index
Consistency index
Liquidity index
SOIL INVESTIGATION
Determination of surface and
subsurface soil conditions and
features in an area of proposed
construction that may influence the
design and construction and address
expected post construction
problems.
SCOPE OF
INVESTIGATION
Simple visual examination of soil at the
surface or from shallow test pits
Detailed study of soil and groundwater
to a reasonable depth (influence zone)
by sampling
PURPOSE OF SOIL INVESTIGATION:
Selection of foundation type.
Design of foundations.
Contractors to quote realistic and competitive
tenders.
Planning construction techniques.
Selection of appropriate construction
equipment (especially for excavation and
foundations).
Feasibility studies of the site.
Estimating development cost for the site.
Study of environmental impacts of the
proposed construction.
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PURPOSE OF SOIL INVESTIGATION:
Selection of borrow areas for embankments.
Need for any suitable soil improvements.
Requirement of any surface or subsurface
drainage.
Suitable and economical route for highways
with respect to soil conditions.
Selecting areas (better soil) for engineering
structures for foundation cost reduction
Design of extension works
Failure investigation
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Boring Logs
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METHODS OF INVESTIGATION
The methods to determine the sequence,
thickness and lateral extent of the soil strata
and, where appropriate the level of bedrock.
The common methods include
Test pits
Shafts and audits
Boring or drilling
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Test Pits
The excavation of test pits is a simple and reliable
method.
The depth is limited to 4-5m only.
The in-situ conditions are examined visually
It is easy to obtain disturbed and undisturbed samples
Block samples can be cut by hand tools and tube
samples can be taken from the bottom of the pit.
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Walls of the test pit indicate four layers (1) Clayey silt (2)
Sandy silt (3) Clean sand (4) Sandy gravel
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Boring or Drilling
To obtain representative soil and rock samples for laboratory
tests.
To identify the groundwater conditions.
Performance of in-situ tests to assess appropriate soil
characteristics.
Some of the common types of boring are as follows
Auger boring
Wash boring
Percussion boring
Rotary drilling
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Auger Boring
Hand Auger
Mechanical Auger
Hand Auger
For hard soil and soil containing gravels boring with
hand auger becomes difficult.
Hand-augered upto about 20m depth,
greater than 8-10m is usually not practical.
The length of the auger blade varies from 0.3-0.5m.
The auger is rotated until it is full of soil, then it is
withdrawn to remove the soil and the soil type
present at various depths is noted.
Disturbed samples and can be used for classification
test
Auger boring may not be possible in very soft clay
or coarse sand
hole tends to collapse when auger is removed
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a. Helical (worm types) Augers
b. Short flight Auger
c. Iwan (posthole) Auger
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Mechanical Auger
Mechanical Auger means power operated augers.
depends on the type and size of auger and the type of soil.
Downwards pressure can be applied
hydraulically, mechanically or by dead weight
a
a
b
c
a. Continuous Flight Auger
b. Hallow-stem auger plugged during advancing bore
c. Plug removed and sampler inserted d. Truck mounted auger boring machine
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Auger Boring
The diameter of the flight auger usually is between 75 to 300mm up to 1m dia
Shell Auger (bucket auger)up to2m are available.
Borehole depths up to 50m are possible with continuous-flight augers.
Continuous flight augers can be solid stem or hollow stem with internal
diameter of 75-150mm.
Hollow stem augers are used when undisturbed samples are required.
Plug is withdrawn and sampler is lowered down and driven in to the soil below
the auger.
Drill through hollow stem in bed rock.
Auger boring for sand below water table
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Auger Boring
The soil rises to the surface along
the helical blades,
Not suitable for soil bore that
require casing
Possibility that different soil types
may become mixed as they rise to
the surface
Difficult to determine the depths of
changes of strata.
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Wash boring
Water with high pressure pumped
through hollow boring rods
Released from narrow holes in a
chisel attach to the lower end of
the rods.
The rods are raised and drop for
chopping action of the chisel by
means of winch.
Wash boring can be used in most
type of soil
Progress is slow in coarse gravel
strata.
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Wash boring
The accurate identification of soil strata is difficult
due to mixing of the material has they are carried
to the surface.
Used for advancing the borehole to enable tube
sample to be taken or field test to be carried at
the hole bottom.
The advantage is that the soil immediately below
the hole remains relatively un-disturbed
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Wash boring rig
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Rotary Drilling
The rig consists of a derrick, power unit, winch, pump and a drill
head to apply high-speed rotary drive and downward thrust to the
drilling rods.
Primarily intended for investigation in rock, but also used in soils.
The drilling tool, (cutting bit or a coring bit) is attached to the
lower end of hollow drilling rods
Water or drilling fluid is pumped down the hollow rods and passes
under pressure through narrow holes in the bit or barrel
The drilling fluid cools and lubricates the drilling tool and carries
the loose debris to the surface between the rods and the side of
the hole.
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Rotary Drilling
The fluid (bentonite slurry) also provides some support to the sides of
the hole if no casing is used
There are two forms of rotary drilling, open-hole drilling and core
drilling.
Open- hole drilling, which is generally used in soils and weak rock,
just for advancing the hole
The drilling rods can then be removed to allow tube samples to be
taken or in-situ tests to be carried out.
In core drilling, which is used in rocks and hard clays, the diamond or
tungsten carbide bit cuts an annular hole in the material and an
intact core enters the barrel, to be removed as a sample. Typical core
diameters are 41, 54 and 76mm, but can range up to 165 mm.
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Advantages
The advantage of rotary drilling in soils is that progress
is much faster than with other investigation methods
and disturbance of the soil below the borehole is slight .
Limitations
The method is not suitable if the soil contains a high
percentage of gravel/cobbles, as they tend to rotate
beneath the bit and are not broken up.
The natural water content of the material is liable to be
increased due to contact with the drilling fluid
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Rotary Drilling rig
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GEOPHYSICAL METHOD
Although boring and test pits provide definite results but they are time
consuming and expensive.
Subsurface conditions are known only at the bore or test pit location.
The subsurface conditions between the boring need to be interpolated or
estimated.
Geophysical methods are more quick and cheaper.
They provide thorough coverage of the entire area.
The results of Geophysical testing however are less definitive and require
subjective interpretation.
Therefore both methods are important. In case geophysical testing in major in
scope, few borings and sampling will be required for accurate determination of
soil properties.
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If boring is major in scope then few geophysical lines will be required
to know
Site Evaluation Direct Methods
Boreholes/Probes
Test Pits/Trenches
Cores
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Geophysical Techniques Indirect Methods
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
Electromagnetic (EM)
Magnetic
Utility Locating
Seismic
Electrical Resistivity
Gravity
Very Low Frequency (VLF)
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Geophysical Techniques Indirect Methods
Advantages
Non-Destructive
Cost Effective
Provides Preliminary or
Supplemental
Information
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Soil Sampling
Split Spoon/SPT sampler
Thin-wall tube/Shelby tube
Augers
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Soil Sampling
Disturbed
In situ structure not retained
Water content, classification, compaction
Undisturbed
Less disturbed
Shear strength, consolidation, permeability
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Soil Sampling
Disturbances
Shearing and compression
In situ stress release
Drying
Vibrations
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How do we
Sample Soil?
Is it just digging holes?
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Amount of sampling
Depends upon;
Time constraints
Topography
Cost factors
Reasons for sampling
There are no specific guidelines
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Soil Analysis
Ch 8
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Soil Sampling
How many samples do we take?
At least 20 single samples per 10 000m2 must
be taken with an earth boring tool (or spade)
and combined to a mixed sample.
To what depth do we sample?
The usual sampling depth is up to 20 cm in
arable land or 10cm in pasture. Undisturbed
soil samples are obtained with a cutting
cylinder with minimum capacity of 100cm3 .
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GROUND INVESTIGATION TESTING
Selection of Testing
for
SPECIFIERS
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Laboratory Testing
Testing by a laboratory accredited to ISO 17025 is an
essential part of soil and rock testing
Competency of staff
Control of test conditions
Accuracy of test measurements
Traceability of measurements to national standards
Control of test material
Repeatability of results
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Laboratory Testing
Soil and Water testing
Rock Testing
Chemical Testing (for effect on construction materials)
Contamination (Analytical) Testing
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Types of Laboratory
Tests
Classification tests
Chemical Tests
Compaction Tests
Shear strength and triaxial tests
Consolidation Tests
Permeability Tests
Specialist Tests
Rock Tests
Contamination Tests
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Structuring the Test
Schedule
Design data required and for what purpose
Identification of material characteristics
Identification of contamination levels
Type of sample needed
Minimum mass of sample
Multiple tests on samples
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Classification Tests
Moisture content
Density
Atterberg limits
Particle size distribution
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Rock Testing
Classification (moisture, density, porosity,
slake durability)
Point load strength
Uniaxial compressive strength and modulus
Triaxial strength
Permeability
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Chemical Tests
To provide design parameters for civil
engineering materials in the ground
pH, sulphate, chloride, carbonate
Organic content and mass loss on
ignition
Special testing (eg SD1)
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Compaction Tests
Density/moisture content
relationships
California bearing ratio (CBR)
Moisture condition value tests (MCV)
Maximum/minimum density
Combined relationship testing
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Shear Strength and Triaxial Tests
Shear Box
Laboratory vane shear
Quick undrained triaxial test (total
stress)
Consolidated undrained triaxial test
(effective stress)
Consolidated drained triaxial test
(effective stress)
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Ring shear for residual strength
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Consolidation Tests
One dimensional consolidation
Triaxial consolidation
Hydraulic cells (Rowe)
Swelling tests
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Permeability Tests
Constant head permeameter
Falling head permeameter
Triaxial permeability
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Contamination
Testing
pH
Organics
Inorganics
Metals
Asbestos
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