Unit III

Nervous System and

Electromyography

Content
Introduction to Nervous System-Anatomy
The anatomy of the nervous system & The Autonomic

nervous System
10-20 electrode placement system for EEG measurement
EEG machine
Evoked potentials and Types & significance of EEG signals
EEG Amplifiers& filters
Analysis of diseases using EEG

Electromyography (EMG)
Muscle contraction mechanism,
Myoelectric voltages,
EMG Machine.

What is nervous system

The nervous system is a complex network of nerves and
cells that carry and transmit messages to and from the
brain and spinal cord to various parts of the body.

The Nervous system has three major

functions:

Sensory monitors internal & external environment

through presence of receptors (carry messages from body
to brain (pain, pressure, temperature))

Integration interpretation of sensory information

(information processing); complex (higher order) functions
Motor response to information processed through
stimulation of effectors( carry messages from brain to
body to respond )
Muscle contraction

Contd..
Two types of neural cells in the nervous system:
Neurons - For processing, transfer, and storage of
information
Neuroglia For support, regulation & protection of
neurons

Neuroglia
CNS neuroglia:
Astrocytes
Oligodendrocytes
Microglia
Ependymal cells

PNS neuroglia:
Schwann cells (neurolemmocytes)
satellite cells

Neuron

30,000 neurons can fit on a pinhead

Disorders are numerous and often difficult to diagnose
and treat

there are different

types of neurone

sense
organ

dendrit
es

cell
body

direction
of
electrical
signal

myeli
n
sheat
h
axo
n

cle
mus

motor
sends
signals to your
neurone

muscles to tell them to

move

nerve
ending
s

sensory
neurone
sends
signals from
your sense organs

relay
neurone
connects
neurones
to other neurones

neurones communicate with each other using a mixture of electrical &

Signal transmission at synapse

Functions of neurotransmitters
Cause muscles to contract or
relax
Cause glands to secrete
products
Activate or inhibit neurons

- Messages are sent across the synapses by special

chemicals called
- neurotransmitters
- The use of neurotransmitters causes an electrical
current
- There is enough electrical current in the brain to power
a flashlight

1 electrical impulse triggers

vesicles to move to the
synapse membrane
vesicles fuse with the
2 membrane and release
neurotransmitter into the
synaptic cleft
neurotransmitter diffuses
3
across the cleft and binds
to receptors on the other
side
synaptic cleft
nucleus

signals cross between neurones at the

synaps

dendrites
vesicle
myelin sheath

cell body

recepto
r

4 Once enough receptors

have neurotransmitters
bound to them, the
signal is transmitted

neurotransmitter

axon

The point where your muscles and nervous system meet is called the

neuromuscular junction (NMJ)

Signals sent from your central nervous

system to the NMJ tell muscles to move

The synapses at the NMJ

use a neurotransmitter
called

cle
s
u
m

acetylcholine

Important Terms
Synapse

junction

between

neurons

that

communicates the message from the presynaptic neuron

to the postsynaptic neuron
Ganglion a cluster of neuronal cell bodies in the PNS
Preganglionic neuron cell body lies within the CNS
Postganglionic fiber (axon) of the ganglionic neuron
extends to the visceral organs
Dendrites - fibers that receive messages from other
neurons
Axons - fibers that send messages to other neurons

Apply Your Knowledge

What is the function of
neurotransmitters?

ANSWER: Neurotransmitters cause muscles to

contract or relax, cause glands to secret products,
activate neurons to send nerve impulses, or inhibit
neurons from sending them.

Neural Tissue Organization

Contd.

Gray matter

Inner tissue with darker color

Contains neuron cell bodies and their dendrites
Divisions are called horns
Central canal runs down the entire length of the spinal
cord through the center of the gray matter

White matter
Outer tissue
Contains myelinated axons
Divisions are called columns (funiculi)
Columns contain groups of axons called nerve tracts

Brain

Brain : A mass of 100 billion

neurons located inside the
skull
- Learning occurs as more
and stronger connections
are made between neurons

A memory is not a
snapshot stored in
the brain it must
be
put
together
from
information
stored in various
parts of the brain

Organization of nervous system

Nervous System
Central Nervous
System
Brain

Forebrain

Spinal Cord

Midbrain
Thalamus

Cortex

Peripheral Nervous
System

Limbic System

Somatic
System

Autonomic
System

Hindbrain
Hypothalamus

Corpus
Callosum

Sympathetic
Division

Parasympathetic
Division

nervous
system
your

is divided into the

central nervous
system (CNS)

brain
and spinal cord
and the

peripheral nervous
system (PNS)
which connects
everything to the brain

and spinal cord

Medical Art Service, Munich /, Wellcome Images

Credit Medical Art Service, Munich /, Wellcome Images

which is the

The ANS and Visceral Sensory Neurons

19

Contd.
The central nervous system can be broken down structurally as follows:
Spinal Cord
Hindbrain
Medulla (myelencephalon)
Pons (metencephalon)
Cerebellum

Midbrain (mesencephalon)
Forebrain
Telencephalon
Cerebral Cortex
Frontal Lobe
Temporal Lobe
Parietal Lobe
Occipital Lobe

Subcortical Structures
Basal Ganglia
Hippocampus and Amygdala (parts of the Limbic System)

Corpus Collosum

Diencephalon
Thalamus
Hypothalamus

Central Nervous System

Impulses may travel as fast at
268 miles/hr throughout the
body from brain to all body
parts via spinal cord

Contd.
The brainstem refers to the midbrain and portions of the
hindbrain. Specifically, the brainstem comprises:
Midbrain (mesencephalon) - Controls both visual and
auditory reflexes
Medulla (myelencephalon)
Pons (metencephalon)

Spinal cord
The spinal cord is one of the two major components of
the central nervous system:
Like the brain, it is completely encased in bone. It
resides within the vertebral column
Connects directly to the medulla section of the brain
It is approximately 45 cm long in an adult
Ascending tracts Receives sensory messages and
sends them to the brain
Descending tracts carry motor information down
from the brain to muscles and glands
Also acts independently from the brain called reflexes

Contd
Reflexes a predictable, automatic response to
stimuli
Sensory Neurons
Receptor

Interneuro
ns
Effectors

Motor Neurons

31 spinal segments:
8 pairs of cervical nerves (C1 through C8)
12 pairs of thoracic nerves (T1 through T12)
5 pairs of lumbar nerves (L1 through L5)
5 pairs of sacral nerves (S1 through S5)
1 pair of coccygeal nerves (C0)

Hindbrain
Oldest part of the brain
Located between the spinal cord and the brain hemispheres
Consists of the medulla, pons and cerebellum
Contains many nuclei, including those that produce the
neurotransmitters for the whole brain
Controls

many

including
Respiration
Circulation
Digestion

involuntary,

life-sustaining

processes

Contd.
Medulla (myelencephalon)

Full name: Medulla Oblongata ("oblong marrow")

Connects the spinal cord to pons
Inferior portion of brain stem
Controls many vital activities, such as heart rate, blood
pressure, and breathing

Contd.
Pons (metencephalon)

Full name: Pons Varolii. Originally means 'bridge

Bridges the cerebrum and the cerebellum through cerebellar
peduncles
Responsible to Regulates respiration

Contd.
Cerebellum
Location
Inferior to the occipital lobes of the cerebrum
Posterior to the pons and medulla oblongata
Coordinates
Complex skeletal muscle contractions that are
needed for body movements
Fine movements, provide balance to the body

Midbrain
Controls posture and walking
Handles reflexes of eye movements

Forebrain
Telencephalon
Cerebral Cortex
The cerebral cortex is composed of two hemispheres comprising four
lobes: the frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes.
Frontal Lobe

Motor areas for voluntary body movements

Largest of the four lobes
Language production
Memory and higher cognitive function

Contd.
Temporal Lobe
Auditory processing - interpretation
Memory
Understanding language

Contd.
Parietal Lobe
Spatial processing
Attention
Somatosensory interprets sensations

Contd.
Occipital Lobe
Visual processing

Contd.

Contd.

Contd.

lobes

Apply Your Knowledge

Answer:
Match the following:
___
H Meninges

A. Carry motor information from brain

___
D Ascending tracts B. Stores memories and creates
emotions
A
___ Descending tracts
C. Grooves on the surface of the
B
cerebrum
F Cerebral cortex D. Carry sensory information to the
___
brain
C
___
E. Predictable, automatic response to
G Hypothalamus
stimuli
E
___ Sulci
F. Maintains homeostasis
___ Cerebellum

G. Coordinates skeletal muscle

Peripheral Nervous System

Nerves that branch off the
CNS
Peripheral nerves
Two types:
Cranial nerves
Spinal nerves

Cranial Nerves
I.Olfactory nerves

Carry smell information to the brain for interpretation

II.Optic nerves

Carry
visual
interpretation

information

to

the

brain

for

III.Oculomotor nerves

Found within the muscles that move the eyeball,

eyelid, and iris

IV. Trochlear nerves

Act in the muscles that move the eyeball.

V. Trigeminal nerves
Carry sensory information from the surface of the eye,
the scalp, facial skin, the lining of the gums, and the
palate to the brain for interpretation
Also found within the muscles needed for chewing

Contd.
VI.Abducens nerves

Act in the muscles that move the eyeball

VII. Facial nerves

Found in the muscles of facial expression as well as in

the salivary and tear glands
Also carry sensory information from the tongue

VIII. Vestibulocochlear nerves

Carry hearing and equilibrium information from the inner

ear to the brain for interpreta tion

IX. Glossopharyngeal nerves

Carry sensory information from the throat and tongue to

the brain for interpretation
Also act in the muscles of the throat

X. Vagus nerves

Carry sensoryinformation from the thoracic and abdominal

organs to the brain for interpretation
Also found within the muscles in the throat, stomach,
intestines, and heart

Contd.
XI. Accessory nerves
Found within the muscles of the throat, neck,
back, and voice box

XII. Hypoglossal nerves

Found within the muscles of the tongue

Spinal Nerves
Dermatome
Ventral root
Dorsal root

Introduction to ANS
Regulates activity of smooth muscle, cardiac
muscle and glands
Operates without conscious control
Named autonomic because was thought to be
AUTONOMUS (working without CNS)

Comparing the ANS and Somatic NS

Structurally then SNS includes:
Somatic sensory neurons
Integrating centers in the CNS (Cortex)
Somatic motor neuron to skeletal muscles only
Somatic- the effect of a motor neuron is always
excitation
Autonomic- the effect of a motor neuron is either
excitatory or inhibitory

Contd.

45

Autonomic Nervous System

Makes all routine adjustments in physiological systems.
The ANS pathway from the CNS to the effector always

involves

neurons

synapsing

in

an

autonomic

ganglion.
Preganglionic cell body is in the CNS, axon extends

to the ganglion outside the CNS

Postganglionic cell body is in the ganglion, axon

extends to the visceral effector

Autonomic regulation & stress

A stressful situation activates three major communication systems in
the brain that regulate bodily functions.
The first of these systems is the voluntary nervous system, which
sends messages to muscles so that we may respond to sensory
information.
The second communication system is the autonomic nervous system. It
combines the sympathetic or emergency branch, which gets us going
in emergencies, and the parasympathetic or calming branch, which
keeps the bodys maintenance systems, such as digestion, in order and
calms the bodys responses to the emergency branch.
The brains third major communication process is the neuroendocrine
system, which also maintains the bodys internal functioning.

Apply Your Knowledge

Match the following:

ANSWER
:

___
B Somatic nervous system A. Motor nerves
___
C Autonomic nervous system B. Governs skeletal or
voluntary muscles
A
___ Afferent nerves
C. Governs respiratory and GI
E
systems
D Efferent nerves
___

D. Go-betweens or interpreters

___ Interneurons

E. Sensory nerves

Correct!

Subdivisions of the ANS

Sympathetic Division
Fight-or-flight
Parasympathetic Division
Rest-and-digest
These divisions are anatomically distinct
Sympathetic Stimulates
heart beat
tissue metabolism,
increases alertness,
prepares the body to deal with emergencies
(fight or flight division)

Contd..
Synapses of neurons are in a chain of ganglia that run
alongside the spinal cord
Extends on both sides of the vertebral column

Carries

preganglionic

fibers

and

cell

bodies

of

postganglionic neurons
Rami communicantes from the spinal nerves connect to the
chain

Effects of Sympathetic Stimulation

Widespread
The sympathetic chain allows one preganglionic fiber to
synapse with many postganglionic neurons
Enhanced & prolonged by the adrenal medulla

Neurotransmitters of Sympathetic Division

Preganglionic fibers release acetylcholine (Ach)
Therefore they are called:
Cholinergic
Postganglionic fibers (most) release norepinephrine
(NE) (= noradrenaline)
Adrenergic
Adrenal

medulla

releases

epinephrine (adrenalin)

norepinephrine

and

Functions of the Sympathetic Division

Heart: increases rate
Lung bronchioles: dilates bronchioles
Salivary glands: produce viscous fluid
Stomach: decreases motility
Pupil: dilates
Sweat glands: produce secretions

Sympathetic Division of the ANS

Parasympathetic
Parasympathetic division (craniosacral)
Cell bodies reside in the brain stem (cranial nerves) or in
the sacral portion of the spinal cord
Slows the heart rate,
Inhibits senses,
Prepares the body for rest and relaxation; (rest and
digest division).

Neurotransmitter of Parasympathetic Division

Preganglionic fibers: Acetylcholine
Postganglionic fibers: Acetylcholine

Effects on various organs:

Heart: decreases rate
Lung bronchioles: constricts bronchioles
Salivary glands: produces watery fluid fluid
Stomach: increases motility
Sweat glands: reduces secretions

Parasympathetic Division of ANS

56

Combined ANS

Relationship Between the Sympathetic and

Parasympathetic Divisions
Most organs receive dual innervation
It is a tug of war between the two

ANS either increases excitation or inhibits the

activity
Ex1. Sympathetic fibers increase heart rate,
parasympathetic fibers decrease heart rate.
Homeostasis comes from the balance of the two.
Ex.#2 Sympathetic fibers decreases stomach motility.
Parasympathetic fibers increase stomach motility.

All division together

Apply Your Knowledge

What is the difference between the

sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
systems?
ANSWER: The sympathetic nervous system
prepares the body for stress. It releases
norepinephrine, causing an increase in heart
and respiratory rate, slows down the GI
system, and dilates pupils. The sympathetic
system also controls constriction of blood
vessels.
The parasympathetic system prepares the
body for resting and digesting. It releases
acetylcholine, which slows heart and

What is an EEG?
EEG stands for electroencephalogram
EEG signals are created by measuring the difference in
electrical currents across neuron membranes

EEG is a mixture of waves at different frequencies and

amplitudes.

Electrodes attached to the body pick up these signals

There can be a only a few electrodes or many attached to
the head
Many naturally occurring signals in the human body effect
EEG signals
Frequency Analysis helps to separate the different signals

62

Contd.

EEG

Types of EEG signals

EEG signals have been classified into 4

categories:
Delta

0.3 to 4 Hz

Dreamless sleep
Theta

4 to 8 Hz

Associated with thoughts which produce dreams

Alpha

8 to 13 Hz

Result of unfocused thoughts

Beta

above 13 Hz

Result of interactions with environment

65

Types of EEG

Electrode placement

Electrode placement can effect signals received

If two electrodes are active, it is called bipolar

recording.
If one electrode is silent, it is called monopolar

67

10-20 Electrode System

F = Frontal
P = Parietal
T = Temporal
O = Occipital
C = Central
A = Auxiliary

Although any number of electrodes can placed for EEG

measurement, but 21
or 25 electrodes can be used for adequate analysis
The grounding electrode and referencing electrode are placed
at forehead
and right ear lobe respectively.

Placement of Electrodes

10-20 Electrodes
Arrangement
10-10 Electrodes
Arrangement

Cont.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF AN EEG MACHINE

Physiology and Input Design of EEG

Cont.
8 64 identical
channels recording
simultaneously from
as many different
pairs of electrodes
Electrodes &
electrode board
Amplifiers
Filters
Pen & chartdrive
(screen)
16

EEG Transducer(Recording set up)

Electro encephalography - study of electrical activities of the

brain.
Electrodes attached to different parts of the skull of a patient.
8 channel EEG recorder: Patient cable consists of 21 electrodes
Electrodes connected to selector in groups of 8- Montage

of electrodes
Right ear electrode reference electrode right brain

electrodes
Left ear electrode reference electrode left brain

electrodes

EEG Transducer(Recording set up)

Interference

problem

is

reduced

by

differential

amplifier(preamplifiers)
Filter bank:- consists of

appropriate filters to select

different types of brain waves.

Output can be given to 8-channel pen recorder, display

unit, computer storage memory for further processing.

Evoked Potential:- Measure of the disturbance in the

EEG pattern that results from external stimuli.

Time delay between stimulus and response can be

measured in signal processing unit.

EEG Amplifiers & Filters

Cont.

Cont.
EEG is characterized
by:
1) Voltage
2) frequency (is used for BF)
3) spatial location (is used for
BF)

Design goal
Stage 1
Gain should be in the range
of 50-80
Common Mode Rejection
Ratio
Provides noise reduction and
signal centering

4) inter-hemispheric symmetries

Stage 2

5) reactivity (reaction to state

Gain of 390
Capacitors stabilize power
supply

change)
6) Character of waveform
occurrence
(random, serial, continuous)

Design Aspects
Low signal levels require very low noise devices
Battery powering could introduce too much signal noise
unless properly shielded.
Two channels sufficient to measure frequency content
Differential voltage measurements
Fifth electrode along scalp midline to create unbiased ground

Risks
Too much noise in system
Will distort signal and render it useless
Can use commercial electrodes, conductive paste
Filters should assist in removing noise, also use
shielding techniques for battery and twisted pairs for
wires

Evoked Potentials
Evoked potentials or event-related potentials (ERPs) are
significant
voltage fluctuations resulting from evoked neural
activity. Evoked
potential is initiated by an external or internal stimulus

Visual

Auditory evoked Potentials

Motor Evoked Potentials

Event-Related Potentials (ERP)

Many trials over the
same time averaged
together

30

EEG Electrodes
Disposable (gel-less,
and pre-gelled types)
Reusable disc
electrodes (gold, silver,
stainless steel or tin)
Cap (different
numbers of electrodes)
saline-based
electrodes
Needle electrodes

EEG artifact

Block diagram for emg recording set up

Block diagram for emg recording set up

Electro myography :- study and interpreting of muscle
action potential.
Potentials measured by placing surface electrodes on
the skin.
Individual cell potential measured by means of needle
electrode
EMG appears like random noise waveform.
Contraction of muscle fibers produce action potentials

Block diagram for emg recording set up

Amplitude of EMG signals depends
Type & placement
Degree of muscular exertions

Normal frequency of EMG signals is 60 Hz

EMG signal amplitude ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 mV.
Amplifier with high CMRR and input impedance
Output can be given to oscilloscope, tape recorder or AF
amplifier.

Electromyogram-emg

Problems of the Nervous System

Concussion
A temporary disturbance of the brains ability to
function due to a hard blow to the head

Contd.
Paralysis
A loss of sensation and
movement of part of
the body due to an
injury of the spinal
cord or brain

Contd.
Parkinsons Disease
The brain does not produce enough of the
neurotransmitter that
transmits messages from the brain to the muscles
Symptoms: tremors, rigid muscles, shuffling walk,
and loss of facial expression

Red areas
show where
chemical is
stored

Contd.
Alzheimers Disease
A gradual shrinking of the neurons in the cerebrum
Symptoms: memory loss, emotional disturbances,
inability to function on own, death

Epilepsy
Abnormal transmission of messages between the
neurons in the brain
Symptoms: seizures

Contd. Other
Disease/Disorder Description
Amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis (ALS)

Lou Gehrigs disease

Degeneration of neurons in the spinal cord and brain

Bells palsy

Weak or paralyzed facial muscles

Brain tumors and

cancers

Abnormal growths
Can be primary or secondary tumors
Most common gliomas

Guillain-Barr
Syndrome

Bodys immune system attacks the PNS

Headaches
Tension
Migraines
Cluster

Episodic or chronic
With aura/without aura
Form of migraines; occurs in groups

Contd.
Disease/Disorder Description
Multiple sclerosis
(MS)

Chronic disease of CNS

Myelin is destroyed

Neuralgias

Disorders causing nerve pain

Sciatica

Damage to sciatic nerve

Stroke

Brain cells die because of an inadequate blood

flow; brain attack

Neurologic Testing: Diagnostic Procedures

Lumbar puncture

Magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI)

Positron emission
tomography (PET) scan

Cerebral angiography

Computerized tomography
(CT) scan
Electroencephalogram
(EEG)
X-ray

Different types of bio signals

Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)
Phonocardiogram(PCG)
Electromyogram (EMG)
Electroretinogram(ERG)
Electrogastrogram (EGG)
Electrooculogram (EOG)
Galvanic skin response (GSR)
Magnetoencephalogram (MEG)
Mechanomyogram (MMG)

University Model Questions:

Q1.