SCIENCE

Prepared by: Orlan Defensor Balano

A fact is a simple statement that

everyone believes. It is innocent,
unless found guilty. A hypothesis is a
novel suggestion that no one wants to
believe. It is guilty, until found

Definition
is a systematic enterprise that builds and
organizes knowledge in the form of testable
explanations and predictions about the
universe
Science in a broad sense existed before the
modern era, and in many historical
civilizations, but modern science is so distinct
in its approach and successful in its results
that it now defines what science is in the
strictest sense of the term.

MEDIEVAL SCIENCE
During the early medieval period,
Syrian Christians from Eastern
Europe such as Nestorians and
Monophysites were the ones that
translated much of the important
Greek science texts from Greek to
Syriac and the later on the translated
many of the works into Arabic and
other languages under Islamic rule.

RENAISSANCE AND EARLY MODERN

SCIENCE
Copernicus formulated a heliocentric model of
the solar system unlike the geocentric model of
Ptolemy's Almagest.
Ren Descartes and Francis Bacon published
philosophical arguments in favor of a new type
of non-Aristotelian science. Descartes argued
that mathematics could be used in order to
study nature, as Galileo had done, and Bacon
emphasized the importance of experiment over
contemplation. Bacon also argued that science
should aim for the first time at practical
inventions for the improvement of all human life.

20th Century
Einstein's Theory of Relativity and
the development of quantum
mechanics led to the replacement of
Newtonian physics with a new
physics which contains two parts,
that describe different types of
events in nature.

PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE

Pure science
is primarily concerned with the
development of theories
establishing relations between
the phenomena of the
universe. These relations
(hypotheses, models) become
the working laws or principles
of science.

Applied science
is directly concerned with the
application of the working laws
of pure science to practical
affairs of life, and to increase
man's control over his
environment

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

 refers to a body of techniques for

investigating phenomena, acquiring
new knowledge, or correcting and
integrating previous knowledge.[1]
To be termed scientific, a method of
inquiry must be based on gathering
empirical and measurable evidence
subject to specific principles of
reasoning.

Steps of scientific method:

Observation of a Phenomenon
Begins with observation
Use of five senses

Definition of Problem
Defines the problem, and states the limit and
make it manageable

Formulation of hypothesis
The experiment
Drawing of Conclusion
Hypothesis, theory and Law

BRANCHES OF SCIENCE

Physical Science
Physics
Chemistry
Astronomy

The Earth Sciences

Geology
Oceanography
Paleontology
Meteorology

Life Sciences

Botany
Zoology
Genetics
Medicine
Physiology
Anatomy
Microbiology

BIOLOGY

Among the most important topics are

five unifying principles that can be said
to be the fundamental axioms of
modern biology:
Cells are the basic unit of life
New species and inherited traits are the
product of evolution
Genes are the basic unit of heredity
An organism regulates its internal
environment to maintain a stable and
constant condition
Living organisms consume and
transform energy

Brief history of Biology

While the formal study of medicine dates
back to Hippocrates (ca. 460 BC ca. 370
BC), it was Aristotle (384 BC 322 BC)
who contributed most extensively to the
development of biology.
Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on
botany that survived as the most
important contribution of antiquity to the
plant sciences, even into the Middle Ages

 Biology began to quickly develop and grow with

Antony van Leeuwenhoek's
In 1838 and 1839, Schleiden and Schwann
began promoting the ideas that
(1) the basic unit of organisms is the cell and
(2) that individual cells have all the characteristics of
life, although they opposed the idea that
(3) all cells come from the division of other cells.

Carolus Linnaeus published a basic taxonomy for

the natural world in 1735 (variations of which
have been in use ever since), and in the 1750s
introduced scientific names for all his species

CELL THEORY

The generally accepted parts of

modern cell theory include:
All known living things are made up of one or more
cells.
All living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division.
The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and
function in all living organisms.
The activity of an organism depends on the total
activity of independent cells.
Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs
within cells.
Cells contain hereditary information (DNA) which is
passed from cell to cell during cell division.
All cells are basically the same in chemical

Types of cells
Prokaryotes
lack a nucleus (though they do have circular DNA)
and other membrane-bound organelles (though
they do contain ribosomes). Bacteria and Archaea
are two domains of prokaryotes.

Eukaryotes
have distinct nuclei bound by a nuclear membrane
and membrane-bound organelles (mitochondria,
chloroplasts, lysosomes, rough and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles). In addition, they
possess organized chromosomes which store
genetic material.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ANIMAL CELL AND PLANT

CELL
Typical Animal
Cell
Typical Plant Cell
Nucleus
o Nucleolus (within nucleus)

Nucleus
o Nucleolus
(within nucleus)

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

(ER)

Rough ER

Smooth ER

Smooth ER

Ribosome

Ribosomes

Cytoskeleton

Cytoskeleton

Organelle Golgi apparatus

Cytoplasm
Mitochondria
Vesicles
Lysosomes
Centrosome
o Centrioles

Golgi apparatus
(dictiosomes)
Cytoplasm
Mitochondria
Plastids and its
derivatives
Vacuole(s)
Cell wall

EVOLUTION

It is not the strongest of the species that

survives, nor the most intelligent that survives. It
is the one that is the most adaptable to change.
--- Charles Darwin

 Is any change across successive

generations in the inherited
characteristics of biological
populations. Evolutionary processes
give rise to diversity at every level of
biological organization, including
species, individual organisms and
molecules such as DNA and proteins.

HEREDITY
Phenotype - The complete set
of observable traits that make
up the structure and behaviour
of an organism
Chromosomes - the long
strands of DNA form
condensed structures

The Six Kingdoms of Living

Organism

Animals
Plants
Fungi
Protista
Eubacteria
Archaebacteria

Law of Mendels
Law of Segregation states that every
individual possesses a pair of alleles
(assuming diploidy) for any particular trait
and that each parent passes a randomly
selected copy (allele) of only one of these
to its offspring.
Law of Independent Assortment, also
known as "Inheritance Law", states that
separate genes for separate traits are
passed independently of one another from
parents to offspring.

Homeostasis
is the ability of an open system
to regulate its internal
environment to maintain stable
conditions by means of multiple
dynamic equilibrium adjustments
controlled by interrelated
regulation mechanisms

Branches of biology
Aerobiology the study of airborne organic
particles
Agriculture the study of producing crops from
the land, with an emphasis on practical
applications
Anatomy the study of form and function, in
plants, animals, and other organisms, or
specifically in humans
Arachnology the study of arachnids
Astrobiology the study of evolution, distribution,
and future of life in the universealso known as
exobiology, exopaleontology, and bioastronomy

 Biochemistry the study of the chemical

reactions required for life to exist and
function, usually a focus on the cellular
level
Bioengineering the study of biology
through the means of engineering with an
emphasis on applied knowledge and
especially related to biotechnology
Biogeography the study of the distribution
of species spatially and temporally

 Bioinformatics the use of information

technology for the study, collection, and
storage of genomic and other biological data
Biomathematics (or Mathematical biology)
the quantitative or mathematical study of
biological processes, with an emphasis on
modeling
Biomechanics often considered a branch of
medicine, the study of the mechanics of living
beings, with an emphasis on applied use
through prosthetics or orthotics

 Biomedical research the study of the human

body in health and disease
Biophysics the study of biological processes
through physics, by applying the theories and
methods traditionally used in the physical
sciences
Biotechnology a new and sometimes
controversial branch of biology that studies the
manipulation of living matter, including genetic
modification and synthetic biology
Building biology the study of the indoor living
environment

 Botany the study of plants

Cell biology the study of the cell as a complete
unit, and the molecular and chemical
interactions that occur within a living cell
Conservation biology the study of the
preservation, protection, or restoration of the
natural environment, natural ecosystems,
vegetation, and wildlife
Cryobiology the study of the effects of lower
than normally preferred temperatures on living
beings

 Developmental biology the study of the

processes through which an organism
forms, from zygote to full structure
Ecology the study of the interactions of
living organisms with one another and with
the non-living elements of their
environment
Embryology the study of the
development of embryo (from fecundation
to birth)

 Entomology the study of insects

Environmental biology the study of the natural world, as
a whole or in a particular area, especially as affected by
human activity
Epidemiology a major component of public health
research, studying factors affecting the health of
populations
Epigenetics the study of heritable changes in gene
expression or cellular phenotype caused by mechanisms
other than changes in the underlying DNA sequence
Ethology the study of animal behavior
Evolutionary biology the study of the origin and descent
of species over time

 Genetics the study of genes and heredity

Herpetology the study of reptiles and amphibians
Histology the study of cells and tissues, a
microscopic branch of anatomy
Ichthyology the study of fish
Integrative biology the study of whole organisms
Limnology the study of inland waters
Mammalogy the study of mammals
Marine biology (or Biological oceanography) the
study of ocean ecosystems, plants, animals, and
other living beings

 Microbiology the study of microscopic organisms

(microorganisms) and their interactions with other
living things
Molecular biology the study of biology and
biological functions at the molecular level, some
cross over with biochemistry
Mycology the study of fungi
Neurobiology the study of the nervous system,
including anatomy, physiology and pathology
Oncology the study of cancer processes, including
virus or mutation oncogenesis, angiogenesis and
tissues remoldings

 Ornithology the study of birds

Population biology the study of groups of conspecific
organisms, including
Population ecology the study of how population dynamics
and extinction
Population genetics the study of changes in gene
frequencies in populations of organisms

Paleontology the study of fossils and sometimes

geographic evidence of prehistoric life
Pathobiology or pathology the study of diseases, and
the causes, processes, nature, and development of
disease
Parasitology the study of parasites and parasitism

 Pharmacology the study and practical application of

preparation, use, and effects of drugs and synthetic
medicines
Physiology the study of the functioning of living
organisms and the organs and parts of living
organisms
Phytopathology the study of plant diseases (also
called Plant Pathology)
Psychobiology the study of the biological bases of
psychology
Sociobiology the study of the biological bases of
sociology

 Structural biology a branch of molecular

biology, biochemistry, and biophysics
concerned with the molecular structure of
biological macromolecules
Virology the study of viruses and some other
virus-like agents
Zoology the study of animals, including
classification, physiology, development, and
behavior (branches include: Entomology,
Ethology, Herpetology, Ichthyology,
Mammalogy, and Ornithology)

ECOLOGY

Ecologists seek to explain:

Life processes and adaptations
Distribution and abundance of
organisms
The movement of materials and energy
through living communities
The successional development of
ecosystems, and
The abundance and distribution of
biodiversity in context of the
environment.

BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity (an abbreviation of
biological diversity) describes the
diversity of life from genes to
ecosystems and spans every level of
biological organization. Biodiversity
means different things to different
people and there are many ways to
index, measure, characterize, and
represent its complex organization.

HABITAT
The habitat of a species describes the
environment over which a species is
known to occur and the type of
community that is formed as a result
Biotope and habitat are sometimes used
interchangeably, but the former applies to
a communities environment, whereas the
latter applies to a species' environment.

 NICHE- is the set of environmental

conditions under which a species is able to
persist.
BIOMES - are larger units of organization
that categorize regions of the Earth's
ecosystems mainly according to the
structure and composition of vegetation.
Examples of biome names include: tropical
rainforest, temperate broadleaf and mixed
forests, temperate deciduous forest, taiga,
tundra, hot desert, and polar desert

POPULATION ECOLOGY
Malthusian growth model : a
population will grow (or decline)
exponentially as long as the
environment experienced by all
individuals in the population
remains constant."

FOOD WEB
is the archetypal ecological network.
Plants capture and convert solar energy into the
biomolecular bonds of simple sugars during
photosynthesis. This food energy is transferred
through a series of organisms starting with those that
feed on plants and are themselves consumed. The
simplified linear feeding pathways that move from a
basal trophic species to a top consumer is called the
food chain. The larger interlocking pattern of food
chains in an ecological community creates a complex
food web. Food webs are a type of concept map or a
heuristic device that is used illustrate and study
pathways of energy and material flows

SOIL ECOLOGY
is the study of the interactions
among soil organisms, and
between biotic and abiotic
aspects of the soil environment.

Features of the soil

ecosystem
Moisture itself becomes a major limiting factor on land.
Terrestrial organisms are constantly confronted with the
problem of dehydration. Transpiration or evaporation of
water from plant surfaces is an energy dissipating
process unique to the terrestrial environment.
Temperature variations and extremes are more
pronounced in the air than in the water medium.
On the other hand, the rapid circulation of air
throughout the globe results in a ready mixing and
remarkably constant content of oxygen and carbon
dioxide.

 Although soil offers solid support, air does not.

Storing skeletons have been evolved in both land
plants and animals and also special means of
locomotion have been evolved in the latter.
Land, unlike the ocean, is not continuous; there are
important geographical barriers to free movement.
The nature of the substrate, although important in
water is especially vital in terrestrial environment.
Soil, not air, is the source of highly variable
nutrients; it is a highly developed ecological
subsystem.

Aquatic Ecosystem
is an ecosystem in a body of
water
two types:
Marine
Freshwater

Marine Ecosystem
cover approximately 71% of the
Earth's surface and contain
approximately 97% of the planet's
water.
They generate 32% of the world's net
primary production

Marine ecosystems can be divided

into the following zones:
oceanic (the open part of the ocean where
animals such as whales, sharks, and tuna
live); profundal (bottom or deep water);
benthic (bottom substrates);
intertidal (the area between high and low
tides);
estuaries;
salt marshes;
coral reefs; and
hydrothermal vents (where chemosynthetic
sulfur bacteria form the food base)

Freshwater Ecosystem
Three Basic Type of Freshwater
Ecosystem
Lentic: slow-moving water, including
pools, ponds, and lakes.
Lotic: rapidly-moving water, for
example streams and rivers.
Wetlands: areas where the soil is
saturated or inundated for at least
part of the time

Lake ecosystems can be divided

into zones:
pelagic (open offshore waters); profundal; littoral
(nearshore shallow waters); and
riparian (the area of land bordering a body of
water).
Two important subclasses of lakes are ponds,
which typically are small lakes that intergrade
with wetlands, and water reservoirs. Many lakes,
or bays within them, gradually become enriched
by nutrients and fill in with organic sediments, a
process called eutrophication.
Eutrophication is accelerated by human activity
within the water catchment area of the lake