Unit 1

Power System Protection

Generation-typically at 420kV

Typical
Bulk
Power
System

Transmission-typically at 230-765kV

Receives power from transmission system

and transforms into subtransmission level
Subtransmission-typically at 69-161kV
Receives power from subtransmission system
and transforms into primary feeder voltage
Distribution network-typically 2.469kV
Low voltage (service)-typically 120600V

GE Consumer & Industrial

Multilin

Objective of Power System Protection

Why power system

protection?

Protection
Protection Zones
Zones
1. Generator or Generator-Transformer Units
2. Transformers
3. Buses
4. Lines (transmission and distribution)
5. Utilization equipment (motors, static loads, etc.)
6. Capacitor or reactor (when separately protected)
Bus zone
Unit Generator-Tx zone

Bus zone
Line zone

Bus zone
Motor zone

Transformer zone

Transformer zone

~
Generato
r

XFMR

Bus

Line

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GE Consumer & Industrial
Multilin

Bus

XFMR

Bus

Motor

Application Principles
Protection zones

Generat
or

Xfmr

Bus

Bus
Line

Application Principles
Protection zones determined by CT

location
Generat
or

Xfmr

Bus

Bus
Line

Application Principles
Protection zones determined by CT

location
Generat
or

Xfmr

Line
Transformer
Zone

Bus

Bus

Application Principles
Protection zones determined by CT

location
Generat
or

Xfmr

Transformer
zone
Unit generator-transformer
zone

Bus

Bus
Line

Application Principles
Protection zones determined by CT

location
Generat
or

Bus zone

Xfmr

Transformer
zone
Unit generator-transformer
zone

Bus

Bus
Line

Application Principles
Protection zones determined by CT

location
Generat
or

Bus zone

Xfmr

Transformer
zone
Unit generator-transformer
zone

10

Bus

Bus
Line
Line zone

Application Principles
Protection zones determined by CT

location
Generat
or

Bus zone

Bus zone

Bus

Bus

Xfmr

Transformer
zone
Unit generator-transformer
zone

11

Line
Line zone

Application Principles
Protection zones determined by CT

location
Generat
or

Bus zone

Bus zone

Bus

Bus

Xfmr

Transformer
zone
Unit generator-transformer
zone

12

Line
Line zone
Line zone

Application Principles
Protection zones determined by CT

location
Generat
or

Bus zone

Bus zone

Bus

Bus

Xfmr

Transformer
zone
Unit generator-transformer
zone

Line
Line zone
Line zone

Note the overlap, so that there is no location where a fault would

go undetected
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Application Principles
Protection zones

Bus
Line

14

Xfmr

Bus

Motor

Application Principles
Protection zones determined by CT

location
Bus
Line

15

Xfmr

Bus

Motor

Application Principles
Protection zones determined by CT

location
Bus
Line
Line zone

16

Xfmr

Bus

Motor

Application Principles
Protection zones determined by CT

location
Bus zone
Bus
Line
Line zone

17

Xfmr

Bus

Motor

Application Principles
Protection zones determined by CT

location
Bus zone
Bus

Xfmr

Line
Line zone
Xfmr zone

18

Bus

Motor

Application Principles
Protection zones determined by CT

location
Bus zone
Bus

Bus zone
Xfmr

Line
Line zone
Xfmr zone

19

Bus

Motor

Application Principles
Protection zones determined by CT

location
Bus zone
Bus

Bus zone
Xfmr

Bus

Motor

Line
Line zone
Xfmr zone

20

Motor
zone

Application Principles
Protection zones determined by CT

location
Bus zone
Bus

Bus zone
Xfmr

Bus

Motor

Line
Line zone
Xfmr zone
Again, note the overlap
Also note:
A fault on a major element is covered by how many zones?
A fault within a circuit breaker is covered by how many zones?
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Motor
zone

Zone
Zone Overlap
Overlap
1. Overlap is accomplished by the locations of CTs, the
key source for protective relays.
2. In some cases a fault might involve a CT or a circuit
breaker itself, which means it can not be cleared
until adjacent breakers (local or remote) are
opened.
Relay Zone A

Zone A

Relay Zone B

Relay Zone A

Zone B

Zone A

Relay Zone B

Zone B

CTs are located at both sides of

CB-fault between CTs is cleared from both

CTs are located at one side of

CB-fault between CTs is sensed by both

remote sides

relays, remote right side operate only.

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GE Consumer & Industrial
Multilin

Factors affecting power system

protection
Selectivity= isolate only the faulty network

and maintain the normal supply

Reliability = operate properly during the
period of service
Speed= quick disconnection
Discrimination = between fault and loading
conditions
Simplicity= simple and straight forward
Senstivity= operate correctly within its
zone
Economics= max protection+ min cost

Art
Art & Science
Science of
of Protection
Protection
Selection of protective relays requires compromises:

Maximum and Reliable protection at minimum

equipment cost

High Sensitivity to faults and insensitivity to

maximum load currents

High-speed fault clearance with correct selectivity

Selectivity in isolating small faulty area

Ability to operate correctly under all predictable

power system conditions
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Art
Art & Science
Science of
of Protection
Protection
Cost of protective relays should be balanced
against risks involved if protection is not
sufficient and not enough redundancy.
Primary objectives is to have faulted zones
primary protection operate first, but if there
are protective relays failures, some form of
backup protection is provided.
Backup protection is local (if local primary
protection fails to clear fault) and remote (if
remote protection fails to operate to clear
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fault)
GE Consumer & Industrial
Multilin

Primary
Primary Equipment
Equipment &
&
Components
Components
Transformers - to step up or step down voltage level
Breakers - to energize equipment and interrupt fault
current to isolate faulted equipment
Insulators - to insulate equipment from ground and
other phases
Isolators (switches) - to create a visible and
permanent isolation of primary equipment for
maintenance purposes and route power flow over
certain buses.
Bus - to allow multiple connections (feeders) to the
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Consumer
& Industrial
same sourceGEof
power
(transformer).
Multilin

Per unit and percent values

Ratio of actual to base values is per unit

values.
Convert from per cent to per unit values by
dividing 100.

But why per unit values?

Advantages of per unit representation

1. Ordinary parameters vary considerably with

variation of physical size, terminal voltage

and power rating etc. while per unit
parameters are independent
of these
quantities over a wide range of the same
type of apparatus
2. It provide more meaningful information.
3. The chance of confusion between line and

phase values in a three-phase balanced

system is reduced.

representation
4. Impedances of machines are specified by the
manufacturer in terms of per unit values.
5. The per unit impedance referred to either side of
a single-phase transformer is the same.
6. The per unit impedance referred to either side of
a three -phase transformer is the same regardless
of the connection whether they are -, Y-Y or Y.
7. The computation effort in power system is very
much reduced with the use of per unit quantities.
8. Usually, the per unit quantities being of the
order of unity or less can easily be handled with a
digital computer. Manual calculation are also
simplified.

Per Unit Calculations

A key problem in analyzing power systems is

the large number of transformers.

It would be very difficult to continually have to

refer impedances to the different sides of the

transformers
This problem is avoided by a normalization of

all variables.
This normalization is known as per unit
analysis.

30

actual quantity
quantity in per unit
base value of quantity

Per Unit Conversion

Procedure, 1

1. Pick a 1 VA base for the entire system, SB

2. Pick a voltage base for each different

voltage level, VB. Voltage bases are related

by transformer turns ratios. Voltages are
line to neutral.
3. Calculate the impedance base, ZB= (VB)2/SB
4. Calculate the current base, IB = VB/ZB
5. Convert actual values to per unit

Note, per unit conversion affects magnitudes, not

the angles. Also, per unit quantities no longer have
31
units (i.e., a voltage is 1.0 p.u., not 1 p.u. volts)

Per Unit Solution Procedure

1. Convert to per unit (p.u.) (many problems

are already in per unit)

2. Solve
3. Convert back to actual as necessary

32

Three Phase Per Unit

Procedure is very similar to 1 except we use a 3
VA base, and use line to line voltage bases
3

1. Pick a 3 VA base for the entire system,S B

2. Pick a voltage base for each different

voltage level, VB,LL. Voltages are line to line.

3. Calculate the impedance base

ZB

VB2, LL
S B3

( 3 VB , LN ) 2
3S 1B

VB2, LN
S 1B

Exactly the same impedance bases as with

33
single
phase using

Three Phase Per Unit, cont'd

4. Calculate the current base, IB
3
IB

S B3
3 S 1B
S 1B
1

IB
3 VB , LL
3 3 VB , LN VB , LN

Exactly the same current bases as with single phas

5. Convert actual values to per unit

34

Example 1
A 5 KVA 400/200 V, 50Hz, single phase

transformer has the primary and secondary

leakage reactance each of 2.5 ohm. Determine
the total reactance in per unit.
Sb= 5000 VA
Primary Base Voltage Vb1 = 400 V
Secondary Base Voltage Vb2 = 200 V
X1e=X1+a2X2
a=N1/N2=400/200=2
X1e=X1+a2X2=2.5 + 2.5 * 22 =12.5 ohm

 Xpu= (Xactual/Zbase)
Zb1= (V2b1/Sb)=4002/5000=32 ohm
Xpu= (Xactual/Zbase)= 12.5/32 = 0.390625

pu..1

X1pu = X1/Zb1
X2pu = X2/Zb2
Zb2 = (V2b2/Sb)= 2002/5000=8 ohm
X2pu = X2/Zb2 = 2.5/8 = 0.3125
X1pu = X1/Zb1 = 3.5/32 = 0.078125
Xpu= X1pu + X2pu = 0.390625..2
Both 1 and 2 matches which confirm that pu

impedances are same on both sides of a transformer

Symmetrical Components

Symmetrical components

In a three-phase Y-connected system, the

neutral current is the sum of the line

currents:

Three phase fault

Single line to ground fault

V=Vf IZ

Line to line fault

Double line to ground fault

sudden test
A 7 KVA 1000/250 V, 50Hz, single phase
transformer has the primary and secondary
leakage reactance each of 5 ohm. Determine
the total reactance in per unit.

AC Power and Phasors

A phasor is a representation of a sinusoidal voltage or current as a
vector rotating about the origin of the complex plane.

50

phasors
Advantages of Phasors

Less Cumbersome (short hand notation)

Simpler Calculations (complex arithmetic, calculators can do),
generally less need for integration and differentiation
Additional insights may be obtained about relations between
currents, voltages, and power
Limitations

Applies only to sinusoidal steady-state systems

Power Calculated using phasors is only the time average

Current Transformers
Current transformers are used to step primary system
currents to values usable by relays, meters, SCADA,
transducers, etc.
CT ratios are expressed as primary to secondary; 2000:5,
1200:5, 600:5, 300:5
A 2000:5 CT has a CTR of 400

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GE Consumer & Industrial
Multilin

Current into the Dot, Out of the Dot

Current out of the dot, in to the dot
Forward Power
IP

IS

Relay
or Meter

IR

Forward Power
IP

IS

Relay
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or Meter
GE Consumer & Industrial
Multilin

IR

Voltage Transformers
Voltage (potential) transformers are used to isolate and
step down and accurately reproduce the scaled voltage for
the protective device or relay
VT ratios are typically expressed as primary to secondary;
14400:120, 7200:120
A 4160:120 VT has a VTR of 34.66

VP
VS
Relay

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GE Consumer & Industrial
Multilin

Typical CT/VT Circuits

55

Courtesy
of Blackburn,
Protective Relay: Principles and
GE Consumer
& Industrial
Applications

Multilin

CT/VT Circuit vs. Casing Ground

Case

Secondary Circuit

Case ground made at IT location

Secondary circuit ground made at first

point of use

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GE Consumer & Industrial
Multilin