Building Java Programs

Chapter 2
Primitive Data and Definite Loops

Copyright (c) Pearson 2013.

All rights reserved.

Data types
type: A category or set of data values.
Constrains the operations that can be performed on data
Many languages ask the programmer to specify types
Examples: integer, real number, string

Internally, computers store everything as 1s and 0s

104 01101000
"hi" 01101000110101

Java's primitive types

primitive types: 8 simple types for numbers, text,
etc.
Java also has object types, which we'll talk about later
Name

Description

Examples

int

integers

(up to 231 - 1)

42, -3, 0, 926394

double

real numbers

(up to 10308)

3.1, -0.25, 9.4e3

char

single text characters

'a', 'X', '?', '\n'

boolean

logical values

true, false

Why does Java distinguish integers vs. real numbers?

3

Expressions
expression: A value or operation that computes a
value.
Examples:

1 + 4 * 5
(7 + 2) * 6 / 3
42

The simplest expression is a literal value.

A complex expression can use operators and parentheses.

Arithmetic operators
operator: Combines multiple values or expressions.
+
*
/
%

addition
subtraction (or negation)
multiplication
division
modulus (a.k.a. remainder)

As a program runs, its expressions are evaluated.

1 + 1 evaluates to 2
System.out.println(3 * 4); prints 12
How would we print the text 3 * 4 ?
5

Integer division with /

When we divide integers, the quotient is also an integer.
14 / 4 is 3, not 3.5
3
4 ) 14
12
2

4
10 ) 45
40
5

52
27 ) 1425
135
75
54
21

More examples:
32 / 5
is 6
84 / 10
is 8
156 / 100 is 1
Dividing by 0 causes an error when your program runs.
6

Integer remainder with %

The % operator computes the remainder from integer division.
14 % 4
is 2
What is the result?
218 % 5
is 3
3
4 ) 14
12
2

43
5 ) 218
20
18
15
3

45 % 6
2 % 2
8 % 20
11 % 0

Applications of % operator:
Obtain last digit of a number: 230857 % 10 is 7
Obtain last 4 digits:

658236489 % 10000 is 6489

See whether a number is odd:

7 % 2 is 1, 42 % 2 is 0
7

Precedence
precedence: Order in which operators are evaluated.
Generally operators evaluate left-to-right.
1 - 2 - 3 is (1 - 2) - 3 which is -4
But * / % have a higher level of precedence than + 1 + 3 * 4

is 13

6 + 8 / 2 * 3
6 +
4
* 3
6 +
12

is 18

Parentheses can force a certain order of evaluation:

(1 + 3) * 4
is 16
Spacing does not affect order of evaluation
1+3 * 4-2
is 11
8

Precedence examples
1 * 2 + 3 * 5 % 4
\_/
|
2
+ 3 * 5 % 4

\_/
|
2
+ 15
% 4

\___/
|
2
+
3

\________/
|
5

1 + 8 % 3 * 2 - 9
\_/
|
1 +
2
* 2 - 9
\___/
|
1 +
4
- 9
\______/
|
5
- 9
\_________/
|
-4
9

Precedence questions
What values result from the following expressions?
9 / 5
695 % 20
7 + 6 * 5
7 * 6 + 5
248 % 100 / 5
6 * 3 - 9 / 4
(5 - 7) * 4
6 + (18 % (17 - 12))

10

Real numbers (type

double)
Examples: 6.022 , -42.0 , 2.143e17
Placing .0 or . after an integer makes it a double.

The operators + - * / % () all still work with double.

/ produces an exact answer: 15.0 / 2.0 is 7.5
Precedence is the same: () before * / % before + -

11

Real number example

2.0 * 2.4 + 2.25 * 4.0 / 2.0
\___/
|
4.8
+ 2.25 * 4.0 / 2.0

\___/
|
4.8
+
9.0
/ 2.0

\_____/
|
4.8
+
4.5

\____________/
|
9.3
12

Mixing types
When int and double are mixed, the result is a double.
4.2 * 3 is 12.6

The conversion is per-operator, affecting only its operands.

7 / 3 * 1.2 + 3 / 2
\_/
|
2
* 1.2 + 3 / 2

\___/
|
2.4
+ 3 / 2

\_/
|
2.4
+
1

\________/
|
3.4

3 / 2 is 1 above, not 1.5.

2.0 + 10 / 3 * 2.5 - 6 / 4

\___/
|
2.0 +
3
* 2.5 - 6 / 4

\_____/
|
2.0 +
7.5
- 6 / 4

\_/
|
2.0 +
7.5
1
\_________/
|
9.5
1

\______________/
|
8.5
13

String concatenation
string concatenation: Using + between a string and
another value to make a longer string.
"hello" + 42
1 + "abc" + 2
"abc" + 1 + 2
1 + 2 + "abc"
"abc" + 9 * 3
"1" + 1
4 - 1 + "abc"

is
is
is
is
is
is
is

"hello42"
"1abc2"
"abc12"
"3abc"
"abc27"
"11"
"3abc"

Use + to print a string and an expression's value together.

System.out.println("Grade: " + (95.1 + 71.9) / 2);

Output: Grade: 83.5

14

Variables

15

Receipt example
What's bad about the following code?
public class Receipt {
public static void main(String[] args) {
// Calculate total owed, assuming 8% tax / 15% tip
System.out.println("Subtotal:");
System.out.println(38 + 40 + 30);
System.out.println("Tax:");
System.out.println((38 + 40 + 30) * .08);
System.out.println("Tip:");
System.out.println((38 + 40 + 30) * .15);
System.out.println("Total:");
System.out.println(38 + 40 + 30 +
(38 + 40 + 30) * .08 +
(38 + 40 + 30) * .15);
}
}

The subtotal expression (38 + 40 + 30) is repeated

So many println statements
16

Variables
variable: A piece of the computer's memory that is given
a name and type, and can store a value.
Like preset stations on a car stereo, or cell phone speed dial:

Steps for using a variable:

Declare it

- state its name and type

Initialize it

- store a value into it

Use it

- print it or use it as part of an expression

17

Declaration
variable declaration: Sets aside memory for storing a
value.
Variables must be declared before they can be used.

Syntax:
type name;
The name is an identifier.

int x;
myGPA

double myGPA;
18

Assignment
assignment: Stores a value into a variable.
The value can be an expression; the variable stores its result.

Syntax:
name = expression;

int x;
x = 3;
double myGPA;
myGPA = 1.0 + 2.25;

myGPA 3.25

19

Using variables
Once given a value, a variable can be used in
expressions:
int x;
x = 3;
System.out.println("x is " + x);

// x is 3

System.out.println(5 * x - 1);

// 5 * 3 - 1

You can assign a value more than once:

int x;
x = 3;
System.out.println(x + " here");

3
11

// 3 here

x = 4 + 7;
System.out.println("now x is " + x); // now x is 11
20

Declaration/initialization
A variable can be declared/initialized in one statement.

Syntax:
type name = value;

double myGPA = 3.95;

int x = (11 % 3) + 12;

myGPA 3.95

14

21

Assignment and algebra

Assignment uses = , but it is not an algebraic equation.
=
left"

means, "store the value at right in variable at

The right side expression is evaluated first,

and then its result is stored in the variable at left.

What happens here?

int x = 3;
x = x + 2;

3
5

// ???

22

Assignment and types

A variable can only store a value of its own type.
int x = 2.5;

// ERROR: incompatible types

An int value can be stored in a double variable.

The value is converted into the equivalent real number.
double myGPA = 4;

double avg = 11 / 2;

myGPA 4.0

avg

5.0

Why does avg store 5.0

and not 5.5 ?
23

Compiler errors
A variable can't be used until it is assigned a value.
int x;
System.out.println(x);

// ERROR: x has no value

You may not declare the same variable twice.

int x;
int x;

// ERROR: x already exists

int x = 3;
int x = 5;

// ERROR: x already exists

How can this code be fixed?

24

Printing a variable's
value
Use + to print a string and a variable's value on one
line.
double grade = (95.1 + 71.9 + 82.6) / 3.0;
System.out.println("Your grade was " + grade);
int students = 11 + 17 + 4 + 19 + 14;
System.out.println("There are " + students +
" students in the course.");
Output:
Your grade was 83.2
There are 65 students in the course.
25

Receipt question
Improve the receipt program using variables.
public class Receipt {
public static void main(String[] args) {
// Calculate total owed, assuming 8% tax / 15% tip
System.out.println("Subtotal:");
System.out.println(38 + 40 + 30);
System.out.println("Tax:");
System.out.println((38 + 40 + 30) * .08);
System.out.println("Tip:");
System.out.println((38 + 40 + 30) * .15);

System.out.println("Total:");
System.out.println(38 + 40 + 30 +
(38 + 40 + 30) * .15 +
(38 + 40 + 30) * .08);

26

Receipt answer
public class Receipt {
public static void main(String[] args) {
// Calculate total owed, assuming 8% tax / 15% tip
int subtotal = 38 + 40 + 30;
double tax = subtotal * .08;
double tip = subtotal * .15;
double total = subtotal + tax + tip;

System.out.println("Subtotal: " + subtotal);

System.out.println("Tax: " + tax);
System.out.println("Tip: " + tip);
System.out.println("Total: " + total);

27

The for loop

28

Repetition with for loops

So far, repeating a statement is redundant:
System.out.println("Homer says:");
System.out.println("I am so smart");
System.out.println("I am so smart");
System.out.println("I am so smart");
System.out.println("I am so smart");
System.out.println("S-M-R-T... I mean S-M-A-R-T");

Java's for loop statement performs a task many times.

System.out.println("Homer says:");
for (int i = 1; i <= 4; i++) {
// repeat 4 times
System.out.println("I am so smart");
}
System.out.println("S-M-R-T... I mean S-M-A-R-T");
29

for loop syntax

for (initialization; test; update) {
statement;
statement;
...
statement;
}

header

body

Perform initialization once.

Repeat the following:
Check if the test is true. If not, stop.
Execute the statements.
Perform the update.
30

Initialization
for (int i = 1; i <= 6; i++) {
System.out.println("I am so smart");
}

Tells Java what variable to use in the loop

Performed once as the loop begins
The variable is called a loop counter
can use any name, not just i
can start at any value, not just 1
31

Test
for (int i = 1; i <= 6; i++) {
System.out.println("I am so smart");
}

Tests the loop counter variable against a limit

Uses comparison operators:
<
less than
<= less than or equal to
>
greater than
>= greater than or equal to
32

Increment and decrement

shortcuts to increase or decrease a variable's value by 1
Shorthand
variable++;
variable--;

int x = 2;
x++;
double gpa = 2.5;
gpa--;

Equivalent longer version

variable = variable + 1;
variable = variable - 1;

// x = x + 1;
// x now stores 3
// gpa = gpa - 1;
// gpa now stores 1.5
33

Modify-and-assign
shortcuts to modify a variable's value
Shorthand
variable +=
variable -=
variable *=
variable /=
variable %=

value;
value;
value;
value;
value;

Equivalent longer version

variable = variable + value;
variable = variable - value;
variable = variable * value;
variable = variable / value;
variable = variable % value;

x += 3;

// x = x + 3;

gpa -= 0.5;

// gpa = gpa - 0.5;

number *= 2;

// number = number * 2;
34

Repetition over a range

System.out.println("1
System.out.println("2
System.out.println("3
System.out.println("4
System.out.println("5
System.out.println("6

squared
squared
squared
squared
squared
squared

=
=
=
=
=
=

"
"
"
"
"
"

+
+
+
+
+
+

1
2
3
4
5
6

*
*
*
*
*
*

1);
2);
3);
4);
5);
6);

Intuition: "I want to print a line for each number from 1 to 6"

The for loop does exactly that!

for (int i = 1; i <= 6; i++) {
System.out.println(i + " squared = " + (i * i));
}

"For each integer i from 1 through 6, print ..."

35

Loop walkthrough

1
2
3
for (int i = 1; i <= 4; i++) {
4 System.out.println(i + " squared = " + (i * i));
}
5 System.out.println("Whoo!");
1

Output:
1 squared
2 squared
3 squared
4 squared
Whoo!

=
=
=
=

1
4
9
16

4
3
5

36

Multi-line loop body

System.out.println("+----+");
for (int i = 1; i <= 3; i++) {
System.out.println("\\
/");
System.out.println("/
\\");
}
System.out.println("+----+");
Output:
+----+
\
/
/
\
\
/
/
\
\
/
/
\
+----+
37

Expressions for counter

int highTemp = 5;
for (int i = -3; i <= highTemp / 2; i++) {
System.out.println(i * 1.8 + 32);
}

Output:
26.6
28.4
30.2
32.0
33.8
35.6
38

System.out.print
Prints without moving to a new line
allows you to print partial messages on the same line
int highestTemp = 5;
for (int i = -3; i <= highestTemp / 2; i++) {
System.out.print((i * 1.8 + 32) + " ");
}
Output:
26.6 28.4

30.2

Concatenate "

32.0

33.8

35.6

" to separate the numbers

39

Counting down
The update can use -- to make the loop count down.
The test must say > instead of <
System.out.print("T-minus ");
for (int i = 10; i >= 1; i--) {
System.out.print(i + ", ");
}
System.out.println("blastoff!");
System.out.println("The end.");
Output:
T-minus 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, blastoff!
The end.
40

Nested for loops

41

Nested loops
nested loop: A loop placed inside another loop.
for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
for (int j = 1; j <= 10; j++) {
System.out.print("*");
}
System.out.println();
// to end the line
}

Output:
**********
**********
**********
**********
**********

The outer loop repeats 5 times; the inner one 10 times.

"sets and reps" exercise analogy
42

Nested for loop exercise

What is the output of the following nested for loops?
for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
for (int j = 1; j <= i; j++) {
System.out.print("*");
}
System.out.println();
}

Output:
*
**
***
****
*****
43

Nested for loop exercise

What is the output of the following nested for loops?
for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
for (int j = 1; j <= i; j++) {
System.out.print(i);
}
System.out.println();
}

Output:
1
22
333
4444
55555
44

Common errors
Both of the following sets of code produce infinite
loops:
for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
for (int j = 1; i <= 10; j++) {
System.out.print("*");
}
System.out.println();
}
for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
for (int j = 1; j <= 10; i++) {
System.out.print("*");
}
System.out.println();
}

45

Complex lines
What nested for loops produce the following output?
inner loop (repeated characters on each line)

....1
...2
..3
.4
5

outer loop (loops 5 times because there are 5 lines)

We must build multiple complex lines of output using:

an outer "vertical" loop for each of the lines
inner "horizontal" loop(s) for the patterns within each line

46

Outer and inner loop

First write the outer loop, from 1 to the number of lines.
for (int line = 1; line <= 5; line++) {
...
}

Now look at the line contents. Each line has a pattern:

some dots (0 dots on the last line), then a number
....1
...2
..3
.4
5
Observation: the number of dots is related to the line number.
47

Mapping loops to
numbers
for (int count = 1; count <= 5; count++) {
System.out.print( ... );
}
What statement in the body would cause the loop to
print:
4 7 10 13 16

for (int count = 1; count <= 5; count++) {

System.out.print(3 * count + 1 + " ");
}
48

Loop tables
What statement in the body would cause the loop to
print:
2 7 12 17 22

To see patterns, make a table of count and the

numbers.
Each time count goes up by 1, the number should go up
count number to print 5 *
5 * count by 5.
count
3
But 1count * 52 is too great5by 3, so we2subtract 3.
2

10

12

15

12

17

20

17

22

25

22
49

Loop tables question

What statement in the body would cause the loop to
print:
17 13 9 5 1

Let's create the loop table together.

Each time count goes up 1, the number printed should ...
But this multiple is off by a margin of ...
count
-4 * count
-4 * count + 21
number to print

17

-4

17

13

-8

13

-12

-16

-20

1
50

Nested for loop exercise

Make a table to represent any patterns on each line.
....1
...2
..3
.4
5

line # of dots

-1 * line

-1 * line + 5

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

To print a character multiple times, use a for loop.

for (int j = 1; j <= 4; j++) {
System.out.print(".");
}

// 4 dots
51

Nested for loop solution

Answer:
for (int line = 1; line <= 5; line++) {
for (int j = 1; j <= (-1 * line + 5); j++) {
System.out.print(".");
}
System.out.println(line);
}

Output:
....1
...2
..3
.4
5
52

Nested for loop exercise

What is the output of the following nested for loops?
for (int line = 1; line <= 5; line++) {
for (int j = 1; j <= (-1 * line + 5); j++) {
System.out.print(".");
}
for (int k = 1; k <= line; k++) {
System.out.print(line);
}
System.out.println();
}

Answer:
....1
...22
..333
.4444
55555
53

Nested for loop exercise

Modify the previous code to produce this output:
....1
...2.
..3..
.4...
5....

Answer:
for (int line = 1; line <= 5; line++) {
for (int j = 1; j <= (-1 * line + 5); j++) {
System.out.print(".");
}
System.out.print(line);
for (int j = 1; j <= (line - 1); j++) {
System.out.print(".");
}
System.out.println();
}
54

Drawing complex figures

Use nested for loops to produce the following output.
Why draw ASCII art?
Real graphics require a lot of finesse
ASCII art has complex patterns
#================#
Can focus on the algorithms
|
<><>
|
|
<>....<>
|
| <>........<> |
|<>............<>|
|<>............<>|
| <>........<> |
|
<>....<>
|
|
<><>
|
#================#

55

Development strategy
Recommendations for managing complexity:
1. Design the program (think about steps or methods
needed).
write an English description of steps required
use this description to decide the methods
#================#
|
<><>
|
|
<>....<>
|
2. Create a table of patterns of characters
| <>........<> |
use table to write your for loops
|<>............<>|
|<>............<>|
| <>........<> |
|
<>....<>
|
|
<><>
|
#================#

56

1. Pseudo-code
pseudo-code: An English description of an algorithm.
Example: Drawing a 12 wide by 7 tall box of stars
print 12 stars.
for (each of 5 lines) {
print a star.
print 10 spaces.
print a star.
}
print 12 stars.

************
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
************

57

Pseudo-code algorithm
1. Line
# , 16 =, #

2. Top half

|
spaces (decreasing)
<>
dots (increasing)
<>
spaces (same as above)
|

3. Bottom half (top half upside-down)

4. Line
# , 16 =, #

#================#
|
<><>
|
|
<>....<>
|
| <>........<> |
|<>............<>|
|<>............<>|
| <>........<> |
|
<>....<>
|
|
<><>
|
#================#

58

Methods from
pseudocode
public class Mirror {
public static void main(String[] args) {
line();
topHalf();
bottomHalf();
line();
}
public static void topHalf() {
for (int line = 1; line <= 4; line++) {
// contents of each line
}
}
public static void bottomHalf() {
for (int line = 1; line <= 4; line++) {
// contents of each line
}
}

public static void line() {

// ...
}
59

2. Tables
A table for the top half:
Compute spaces and dots expressions from line number
line

spaces

line * -2 + 8

dots

4 * line - 4

12

12

#================#
|
<><>
|
|
<>....<>
|
| <>........<> |
|<>............<>|
|<>............<>|
| <>........<> |
|
<>....<>
|
|
<><>
|
#================#
60

3. Writing the code

Useful questions about the top half:
What methods? (think structure and redundancy)
Number of (nested) loops per line?
#================#
|
<><>
|
|
<>....<>
|
| <>........<> |
|<>............<>|
|<>............<>|
| <>........<> |
|
<>....<>
|
|
<><>
|
#================#
61

Partial solution
// Prints the expanding pattern of <> for the top half of the figure.
public static void topHalf() {
for (int line = 1; line <= 4; line++) {
System.out.print("|");
for (int space = 1; space <= (line * -2 + 8); space++) {
System.out.print(" ");
}
System.out.print("<>");
for (int dot = 1; dot <= (line * 4 - 4); dot++) {
System.out.print(".");
}
System.out.print("<>");
for (int space = 1; space <= (line * -2 + 8); space++) {
System.out.print(" ");
}

System.out.println("|");

62

Class constants
and scope

63

Scaling the mirror

Let's modify our Mirror program so that it can scale.
The current mirror (left) is at size 4; the right is at size 3.

We'd like to structure the code so we can scale the

figure by changing the code in just one place.
#================#
|
<><>
|
|
<>....<>
|
| <>........<> |
|<>............<>|
|<>............<>|
| <>........<> |
|
<>....<>
|
|
<><>
|
#================#

#============#
|
<><>
|
| <>....<> |
|<>........<>|
|<>........<>|
| <>....<> |
|
<><>
|
#============#
64

Limitations of variables
Idea: Make a variable to represent the size.
Use the variable's value in the methods.

Problem: A variable in one method can't be seen in

others.
public static void main(String[] args) {
int size = 4;
topHalf();
printBottom();
}
public static void topHalf() {
for (int i = 1; i <= size; i++) {
...
}
}
public static void bottomHalf() {
for (int i = size; i >= 1; i--) {
...
}
}

// ERROR: size not found

// ERROR: size not found

65

Scope
scope: The part of a program where a variable exists.
From its declaration to the end of the { } braces
A variable declared in a for loop exists only in that loop.
A variable declared in a method exists only in that method.

public static void example() {

int x = 3;
for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {
System.out.println(x);
}
// i no longer exists here
} // x ceases to exist here

x's scope

66

Scope implications
Variables without overlapping scope can have same name.
for (int i = 1; i <= 100; i++) {
System.out.print("/");
}
for (int i = 1; i <= 100; i++) {
// OK
System.out.print("\\");
}
int i = 5;
// OK: outside of loop's scope

A variable can't be declared twice or used out of its scope.

for (int i = 1; i <= 100 * line; i++) {
int i = 2;
// ERROR: overlapping scope
System.out.print("/");
}
i = 4;
// ERROR: outside scope

67

Class constants
class constant: A fixed value visible to the whole program.
value can be set only at declaration; cannot be reassigned

Syntax:

public static final type name = value;

name is usually in ALL_UPPER_CASE
Examples:
public static final int DAYS_IN_WEEK = 7;
public static final double INTEREST_RATE = 3.5;
public static final int SSN = 658234569;

68

Constants and figures

Consider the task of drawing the following scalable
figure:
+/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\+
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
+/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\+

+/\/\/\/\+
|
|
|
|
+/\/\/\/\+

Multiples of 5 occur many times

The same figure at size 2

69

Repetitive figure code

public class Sign {
public static void main(String[] args) {
drawLine();
drawBody();
drawLine();
}
public static void drawLine() {
System.out.print("+");
for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {
System.out.print("/\\");
}
System.out.println("+");
}

public static void drawBody() {

for (int line = 1; line <= 5; line++) {
System.out.print("|");
for (int spaces = 1; spaces <= 20; spaces++) {
System.out.print(" ");
}
System.out.println("|");
}
}
70

Adding a constant
public class Sign {
public static final int HEIGHT = 5;
public static void main(String[] args) {
drawLine();
drawBody();
drawLine();
}
public static void drawLine() {
System.out.print("+");
for (int i = 1; i <= HEIGHT * 2; i++) {
System.out.print("/\\");
}
System.out.println("+");
}

public static void drawBody() {

for (int line = 1; line <= HEIGHT; line++) {
System.out.print("|");
for (int spaces = 1; spaces <= HEIGHT * 4; spaces++) {
System.out.print(" ");
}
System.out.println("|");
}
}
71

Complex figure w/
constant
Modify the Mirror code to be resizable using a constant.
A mirror of size 4:
#================#
|
<><>
|
|
<>....<>
|
| <>........<> |
|<>............<>|
|<>............<>|
| <>........<> |
|
<>....<>
|
|
<><>
|
#================#

A mirror of size 3:
#============#
|
<><>
|
| <>....<> |
|<>........<>|
|<>........<>|
| <>....<> |
|
<><>
|
#============#

72

Using a constant
Constant allows many methods to refer to same value:
public static final int SIZE = 4;
public static void main(String[] args) {
topHalf();
printBottom();
}
public static void topHalf() {
for (int i = 1; i <= SIZE; i++) {
...
}
}
public static void bottomHalf() {
for (int i = SIZE; i >= 1; i--) {
...
}
}

// OK

// OK

73

Loop tables and constant

Let's modify our loop table to use SIZE
This can change the amount added in the loop expression
SIZE line

spaces

-2*line + (2*SIZE) dots

4
4
3
3

6,4,2,0
6,4,2,0
4,2,0
4,2,0

-2*line
-2*line
-2*line
-2*line

4
4
4
4

1,2,3,4
1,2,3,4
1,2,3
1,2,3

#================#
|
<><>
|
|
<>....<>
|
| <>........<> |
|<>............<>|
|<>............<>|
| <>........<> |
|
<>....<>
|
|
<><>
|
#================#

+
+
+
+

8
8
6
6

4*line
4
0,4,8,12 4*line 0,4,8,12 4*line 0,4,8
4*line 0,4,8
4*line -

#============#
|
<><>
|
| <>....<> |
|<>........<>|
|<>........<>|
| <>....<> |
|
<><>
|
#============#
74

Partial solution
public static final int SIZE = 4;
// Prints the expanding pattern of <> for the top half of the figure.
public static void topHalf() {
for (int line = 1; line <= SIZE; line++) {
System.out.print("|");
for (int space = 1; space <= (line * -2 + (2*SIZE)); space++) {
System.out.print(" ");
}
System.out.print("<>");
for (int dot = 1; dot <= (line * 4 - 4); dot++) {
System.out.print(".");
}
System.out.print("<>");
for (int space = 1; space <= (line * -2 + (2*SIZE)); space++) {
System.out.print(" ");
}

System.out.println("|");

75

Observations about
constant
The constant can change the "intercept" in an
expression.
Usually the "slope" is unchanged.
public static final int SIZE = 4;
for (int space = 1; space <= (line * -2 + (2 * SIZE)); space+
+) {
System.out.print(" ");
}

It doesn't replace every occurrence of the original value.

for (int dot = 1; dot <= (line * 4 - 4); dot++) {
System.out.print(".");
}
76