RELATIONAL DATABASE

MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (17332)

Theory Paper : 100 marks
Ext. Oral : 25 marks
Term Work : 50 marks
Sessional : 10 marks
Total : 185 marks

REFERENCE BOOKS
Database System Concepts (4th Edition)
Author : Silberschatz, Korth, Sudarshan

Introduction to Database Management Systems

Author : ISRD Group

SQL ,PL/SQL the Programming language of Oracle

Author : Ivan Bayross

Advanced Database Management System

Author : Chakrabarti Dasgupta

Chapter No 1 : DATABASE SYSTEM CONCEPT

(marks 16)
Data
Known facts that can be recorded and have an implicit meaning.
For example, consider the names, telephone numbers, and
addresses of the people you now.
Database
A database is a collection of related data. Database systems are
designed to manage large bodies of information. Management
of data involves both defining structures for storage of
information and providing mechanisms for the manipulation of
information. The database system must ensure the safety of the
information stored, despite system crashes or attempts at
unauthorized access.

DBMS
A database management system (DBMS) is a
collection of related data and programs that
enables users to create and maintain a database.
The DBMS is a general-purpose software system
that facilitates the processes of defining,
constructing, manipulating, and sharing databases
among various users and applications.

File Processing System

Disadvantages of file processing system

Data redundancy and inconsistency
Difficulty in accessing data
Data isolation
Concurrent-access anomalies
Integrity problems
Atomicity problems
Security problems

Data redundancy and inconsistency

For example, the address and telephone number of a particular customer
may appear in a le that consists of savings-account records and in a le that
consists of checking-account records.
This redundancy leads to higher storage and access cost. In addition, it may
lead to data inconsistency.

Difficulty in accessing data

find out the names of all customers who live within a particular postalcode area.
There is no application program on hand to meet every need. So a bank
manager face difficulty to access data

Data isolation (Separation of Data in various files)

Because data are scattered in various files, and files may be in different
formats, writing new application programs to retrieve the appropriate data
is difficult.

Problems with concurrent access

Example:
Assume I'm paying for groceries with my MAC card at the same time my pay
check is being deposited (and my bank uses a file processing system):
Withdrawal program & Deposit program accessing database
concurrently
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Read balance from checking account file as $51

Read balance from checking account file as $51
Subtract $50 (for groceries)
Update checking account file (new balance: $1)
add $100 (my salary)
Update checking account file (new balance: $151)

Atomicity Problem
In many applications, it is crucial that, if a failure occurs, the data be
restored to the consistent state that existed prior to the failure. It is difficult
to ensure atomicity in a conventional le-processing system.

Integrity problems
Data may need to satisfy certain conditions, called consistency constraints .
for example: account balances should never fall below $0 .
difficult to enforce/add/change such consistency constraints in a file
processing system.

Security Problems
Not all users have access permission to all type of data , but enforcing such
restrictions in FPS is difficult.

Application of database
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Banking:
Airlines:
Universities:
Credit card transactions:
Telecommunication:
Finance:
Sales:
Manufacturing:

Introduction to RDMS
A DBMS that is based on relational model is called as RDBMS. RDBMS
Designed by E.F. Codd.
The relational model uses a collection of tables to represent both data and
the relationships among those data. Each table has multiple columns, and
each column has a unique name.
A table is a two dimensional array containing rows and columns. Each row
contains data related to an entity such as a student. Each column contains
the data related to a single attribute of the entity such as student name.
Basic Concepts of RDBMS are as follows
Tuple:
Attribute:
Degree:
Domain:
Cardinality:

In relational model, a row is called as tuple.

A column header is called as an attribute.
The degree of relation is number of attributes of the table.
All permissible values of attributes is called as a domain.
Number of rows in the table is called as cardinality

Figure 1 shows how data is represented in relational model and what are the
terms used to refer to various components of a table. The following are the
terms used in relational model.

Difference between DBMS and RDBMS

Name of various DBMS and RDBMS software

DBMS Software
Dbase
FoxBASE
FoxPro

RDMS Software
Oracle
MySQL
SQL Server

Data Abstraction
Hiding Database Design complexities from users (which are not computer
professionals) is nothing but known as Data Abstraction.
Data Abstraction feature provide easy way to retrieve data, from database.
There are three levels of abstraction.

Physical level :
Hiding the detail about how the data is stored actually and where it is
stored in database from user is known as physical level abstraction.
The physical level describes complex low-level data structures in detail.

Logical level :
Hiding the detail about what data are stored in the database, and what
relationships exist among those data from user is known as logical level
abstraction.
The logical level describes simple data structures in detail.

View level
The view level of abstraction exists to simplify their interaction with the
system. The system may provide many views for the same database,
may they need to access only a part of the database.
Views can also hide information (e.g., salary) for security purposes.

Fig. Three levels of Abstraction

Database Languages

DDL :

Data Definition Language

DDL commands are deal with the database structure.

DDL commands are used to create, manipulate and drop the database structure.

DQL :

create , alter, rename , drop commands

Data Query Language

DQL commands are used to access database data.

DML :

select command
Data Manipulation Language

DML commands deal with instances of the database.

DML commands are used to insert, update and delete the actual data of
database.

insert , update , delete commands

Instances and Schemas

Schema
The overall structure of the database OR overall design of the database is called
the database schema.
The schema of the database not change frequently , it is more stable as compare
to data in database.
Design of schema decide the fields and their type in database.
We can create the schema or structure of database by using create command.
We can change the schema or structure of database by using alter command.

Instances
Information store in database at a particular point of time is known as Instance in
database.
Instances are not stable in nature and can be change frequently.
Instances denote the rows of table in RDBMS and represent the actual data of the
database.
We can add new instance in database by using insert command.

Data Independence

It is the property of the database which tries to ensure that if we make

any change in any level of schema of the database, the schema
immediately above it would require minimal or no need of change.
What does this mean? We know that in a building, each floor stands on
the floor below it. If we change the design of any one floor, e.g.
extending the width of a room by demolishing the western wall of that
room, it is likely that the design in the above floors will have to be
changed also. As a result, one change needed in one particular floor
would mean continuing to change the design of each floor until we reach
the top floor, with an increase in the time, cost and labour. Would not life
be easy if the change could be contained in one floor only? Data
independence is the answer for this. It removes the need for additional
amount of work needed in adopting the single change into all the levels
above.

Data independence can be classified into the following two types

1.Physical Data Independence:
This means that for any change made in the physical schema, the need to change the logical
schema is minimal. This is practically easier to achieve. Let us explain with an example. Say, you
have bought an Audio CD of a recently released film and one of your friends has bought an Audio
Cassette of the same film. If we consider the physical schema, they are entirely different. The first
is digital recording on an optical media, where random access is possible. The second one is
magnetic recording on a magnetic media, strictly sequential access. However, how this change is
reflected in the logical schema is very interesting.
For music tracks, the logical schema for both the CD and the Cassette is the title card imprinted
on their back. We have information like Track no, Name of the Song, Name of the Artist and
Duration of the Track, things which are identical for both the CD and the Cassette. We can clearly
say that we have achieved the physical data independence here.
2.Logical Data Independence
: This means that for any change made in the logical schema, the need to change the external
schema is minimal. As we shall see, this is a little difficult to achieve. Let us explain with an
example. Suppose the CD you have bought contains 6 songs, and some of your friends are
interested in copying some of those songs (which they like in the film) into their favorite
collection. One friend wants the songs 1, 2,4,5,6, another wants 1,3,4,5 and another wants
1,2,3,6. Each of these collections can be compared to a view schema for that friend. Now by some
mistake, a scratch has appeared in the CD and you cannot extract the song 3. Obviously, you will

Overall Structure of DBMS

There are four components
1 ) Disk Storage
2 ) Storage Manager
3 ) Query Processor
4) Database Users
Disk Storage
Data files,

which store the database itself.

Data dictionary which stores metadata about the structure

of the database,
in particular the schema of
the database
Indices
which provide fast access to data items
that hold particular
values.

Storage Manager
Authorization and integrity manager
which tests for the satisfaction of integrity
constraints and checks the authority of users to access data.
Transaction manager,
which ensures that the database remains in a
consistent (correct) state despite system failures, and that concurrent
transaction executions proceed without conflicting.
File manager
which manages the allocation of space on disk
storage and the data structures used to represent information stored on
disk.
Buffer manager
which is responsible for fetching data from disk
storage into main memory, and deciding what data to cache in main
memory.

The Query Processor

The query processor components include
DDL interpreter which interprets DDL statements and records the
definitions in the data
dictionary.
DML compiler, which translates DML statements in a query language
into an evaluation plan consisting of low-level instructions that the
query evaluation engine
understands. A query can usually be
translated into any of a number of alternative evaluation plans that all
give the same result. The DML compiler also
performs query
optimization, that is, it picks the lowest cost evaluation plan from
among the alternatives.
Query evaluation engine, which executes low-level instructions
generated by the DML compiler.

Fig.
Overall Structure
of DBMS

Database Users
Naive users
invoke one of the permanent application programs that have been written
previously.
E.g. people accessing database over the web, bank tellers, clerical staff
Application programmers
interact with system through DML calls.
Responsible to write application programs using DML commands.
Sophisticated users
form requests in a database query language.
Responsible to search required data from database (Data Mining)

Functions of Database Administrator

Definition of the schema, the architecture of the three levels of the data
abstraction, data independence.
Modification of the defined schema as and when required.
Creating new user ID, password etc. , and also creating the access
permissions that each user can or cannot enjoy. DBA is responsible to
create user roles.
Defining the integrity constraints for the database to ensure that the
data entered conform to some rules, thereby increasing the reliability of
data.
Creating a security mechanism to prevent unauthorized access,
accidental or intentional handling of data that can cause security
threat.
Creating backup and recovery policy. This is essential because in case
of a failure the database must be able to revive itself to its complete
functionality with no loss of data ,as if the failure has never occurred.

Two / Three Tier

architecture

Two-tier architecture: E.g. client programs using ODBC/JDBC to

communicate with a database.
Three-tier architecture: E.g. web-based applications, and applications built
using middleware.

Two-tier architecture
In a two-tier architecture, the application is partitioned into a
component that resides at the client machine, which invokes
database system functionality at the server machine through
query language statements. Application program interface
standards like ODBC and JDBC are used for interaction between the
client and the server.
Three-tier architecture
In contrast, in a three-tier architecture, the client machine acts as
merely a front
end and does not contain any direct database calls. Instead, the
client end communicates with an application server, usually
through a forms interface. The application server in turn
communicates with a database system to access data. The
business logic of the application, which says what actions to carry
out under what conditions, is embedded in the application server,

E.F. Codds laws for fully functional RDBMS

1. Alldatashouldbepresentedtotheuserintableform.
2. Alldatashouldbeaccessiblewithoutambiguity.
3. Acolumnshouldbeallowedtoremainempty.
4. TheDBMSmustprovideaccesstoitsstructurethroughthesametoolsthata
reused toaccessthedata.
5. TheDBMSmustsupportaclearlydefinedlanguagethatincludesfunctionalit
yfor
datadefinition,
datamanipulation,dataintegrity,anddatabasetransactioncontrol.
6. Datacanbepresentedtotheuserindifferentlogicalcombinationscalledvie
ws.
7. Set operations like Union, Intersection and Minus should be supported.
8. Theuserisisolatedfromthephysicalmethodofstoringandretrievinginfor
mationfromthedatabase.
9. Howauserviewsdatashouldnotchangewhenthelogicalstructure(tables
structure)ofthedatabasechanges.
10.Integrity Constraintsonuserinputmustbestored in Data Dictionary, to
make RDBMS front end Independent.
11.Ausershouldbetotallyunawareofwhetherornotthedatabaseishousedo
none computerordistributedacrossseveralcomputers.

Distributed
Database
We can classify

database

into

two

categories as follows

Centralized Database :
The data reside in one single
location.
Distributed Database :
The data is distributed over
multiple locations.
Distributed Database
A distributed database is a
collection of partially independent
databases that (ideally) share a
common schema, and coordinate
processing
of transactions that
access nonlocal data. The processors
communicate with one another
through a communication network
that handles routing and connection
strategies.

Admission
Section

DDBM
S

Student
Personal
Data

Account
Section

Exam
Section

Student
Result
Analysis

Fig. Distributed
Database

Student
Fees
Record

Types of Distributed DBMS

Homogeneous DDBMS
A homogeneous distributed database has identical software and
hardware running all databases instances, and may appear through a
single interface as if it were a single database.
Heterogeneous DDBMS
A heterogeneous distributed database may have different hardware,
operating systems, database management systems, and even data
models for different databases.

DATA WAREHOUSE
Definition
A data warehouse is Integrated, Subject oriented, Time-variant,
Nonvolatile collection of data in support of management's decision making
process.
Integrated
Data warehouses must put data from disparate sources into a
consistent format. They must resolve such problems as naming
conflicts and inconsistencies among units of measure. When they
achieve this, they are said to be integrated.
Subject Oriented
Data warehouses are designed to help you analyze data. For example,
to learn more about your company's sales data, you can build a
warehouse that concentrates on sales. Using this warehouse, you can
answer questions like "Who was our best salesman for this item last
year?" This ability to define a data warehouse by subject matter, sales

Nonvolatile
Nonvolatile means that, once entered into the warehouse, data should
not change. This is logical because the purpose of a warehouse is to
enable you to analyze what has occurred previously.
Time Variant
In order to discover trends in business, analysts need large amounts of
historical data. So it is necessary to put data into warehouse time by
time.
DATA MINING
Data mining (knowledge discovery in databases): Extraction of
interesting (non-trivial, implicit, previously unknown and potentially
useful) information or patterns from data in large databases.

Data Independence
Data independence, which can be defined as the capacity to change the
schema at one level of a database system without having to change the
schema at the next higher level .
There are two types of data independence present
Logical data independence
Logical data independence is the capacity to change the conceptual
schema without having to change external schemas or application
programs.
Example : change in constraint at logical level should not affect the
application programs.
Physical data independence
Physical data independence is the capacity to change the internal
schema without having to change the conceptual schema. Hence, the
external schemas need not be changed as well.
Example: if physical files are reorganized , it should not affect logical

Explain any four advantages of DBMS

Differentiate between Two tier and Three tier architecture.
Explain following terms
Storage Manager
Database Users

Write down any four advantages of DDBMS.

DCL :

Data Control Language

DCL commands are useful to implement access control policies of the

organization.
DCL commands are used to set/reset users permissions on different
objects (eg. Tables,Views etc).

grant , revoke commands

TCL : Transaction Control Language
TCL commands are used to complete transactions without
atomicity problem.
TCL commands useful to maintain database in a consistent
state.
commit , rollback , savepoint commands