Digital Logic Design I

Boolean Algebra and Logic

Gate
Mustafa Kemal Uygurolu

July 17, 2015

EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN UNIVERSITY

Algebras
What is an algebra?

Mathematical system consisting of

Set of elements
Set of operators
Axioms or postulates

Why is it important?

Defines rules of calculations

Example: arithmetic on natural numbers

Set of elements: N = {1,2,3,4,}

Operator: +, , *
Axioms: associativity, distributivity, closure, identity elements,
etc.

Note: operators with two inputs are called binary

Does not mean they are restricted to binary numbers!

Operator(s) with one input are called unary

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BASIC DEFINITIONS
A set is collection of having the same property.

S: set, x and y: element or event

For example: S = {1, 2, 3, 4}

If x = 2, then xS.
If y = 5, then y S.

A binary operator defines on a set S of elements is a

rule that assigns, to each pair of elements from S, a

unique element from S.

For example: given a set S, consider a*b = c and * is a binary

operator.
If (a, b) through * get c and a, b, cS, then * is a binary
operator of S.
On the other hand, if * is not a binary operator of S and a, bS,
then c S.

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BASIC DEFINITIONS
The most common postulates used to formulate various

algebraic structures are as follows:

1. Closure: a set S is closed with respect to a binary operator if, for every

pair of elements of S, the binary operator specifies a rule for obtaining a

unique element of S.

For example, natural numbers N={1,2,3,...} is closed w.r.t. the binary

operator + by the rule of arithmetic addition, since, for any a, bN, there is
a unique cN such that

a+b = c
But operator is not closed for N, because 2-3 = -1 and 2, 3N, but (-1)N.

2. Associative law: a binary operator * on a set S is said to be associative

whenever

(x * y) * z = x * (y * z) for all x, y, zS

(x+y)+z = x+(y+z)

3. Commutative law: a binary operator * on a set S is said to be

commutative whenever

x * y = y * x for all x, yS

x+y = y+x

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BASIC DEFINITIONS
4. Identity element: a set S is said to have an identity element with
respect to a binary operation * on S if there exists an element
eS with the property that

e * x = x * e = x for every xS

0+x = x+0 =x for every xI . I = {, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, }.

1*x = x*1 =x for every xI. I = {, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, }.

5. Inverse: a set having the identity element e with respect to the

binary operator to have an inverse whenever, for every xS, there
exists an element yS such that

x*y=e

The operator + over I, with e = 0, the inverse of an element a is (-a), since

a+(-a) = 0.

6. Distributive law: if * and are two binary operators on a set S, *

is said to be distributive over . whenever

x * (y z) = (x * y) (x * z)

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George Boole
Father of Boolean algebra

He came up with a type of linguistic algebra, the three

most basic operations of which were (and still are) AND,
OR and NOT. It was these three functions that formed
the basis of his premise, and were the only operations
necessary to perform comparisons or basic
mathematical functions.

Booles system (detailed in his 'An Investigation of the

Laws of Thought, on Which Are Founded the
Mathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities', 1854)
was based on a binary approach, processing only two
objects - the yes-no, true-false, on-off, zero-one
approach.

Surprisingly, given his standing in the academic

community, Boole's idea was either criticized or
completely ignored by the majority of his peers.
Eventually, one bright student, Claude Shannon (19162001), picked up the idea and ran with it

July 17, 201

George Boole (1815 - 1864)

Axiomatic Definition of Boolean Algebra

We need to define algebra for binary values

Developed by George Boole in 1854

Huntington postulates for Boolean algebra (1904):

B = {0, 1} and two binary operations, + and

Closure with respect to operator + and operator

Identity element 0 for operator + and 1 for operator
Commutativity with respect to + and
x+y = y+x, xy = yx

Distributivity of over +, and + over

x(y+z) = (xy)+(xz) and x+(yz) = (x+y)(x+z)
Complement for every element x is x with x+x=1, xx=0

There are at least two elements x,yB such that xy

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Boolean Algebra
Terminology:

Literal: A variable or its complement

Product term: literals connected by
Sum term: literals connected by +

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Postulates of Two-Valued Boolean

Algebra
B = {0, 1} and two binary operations, + and
The rules of operations: AND OR and NOT.
AND

OR

NOT

xy

x+y

x'

1. Closure (+ and)
2. The identity elements
(1) +: 0
(2) : 1

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Postulates of Two-Valued Boolean

Algebra
3. The commutative laws
4. The distributive laws

y+
z

x
(y+z)

x
y

x
z

(x y)+
(x z)

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Postulates of Two-Valued Boolean

Algebra
5. Complement

x+x'=1 0+0'=0+1=1; 1+1'=1+0=1

x x'=0 0 0'=0 1=0; 1 1'=1 0=0

6. Has two distinct elements 1 and 0, with 0 1

Note

A set of two elements

+ : OR operation; : AND operation
A complement operator: NOT operation
Binary logic is a two-valued Boolean algebra

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Duality
The principle of duality is an important concept. This

says that if an expression is valid in Boolean algebra,

the dual of that expression is also valid.
To form the dual of an expression, replace all +
operators with . operators, all . operators with +
operators, all ones with zeros, and all zeros with ones.
Form the dual of the expression
a + (bc) = (a + b)(a + c)

Following the replacement rules

a(b + c) = ab + ac

Take care not to alter the location of the parentheses if

they are present.

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Basic Theorems

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Boolean Theorems
Huntingtons postulates define some rules
Post.
Post.
Post.
Post.

Need more rules to modify

1:
2:
3:
4:

closure
(a) x+0=x,
(b) x1=x
(a) x+y=y+x, (b) xy=yx
(a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
(b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
Post. 5: (a) x+x=1, (b) xx=0

algebraic expressions

Theorems that are derived from postulates

What is a theorem?

A formula or statement that is derived from

postulates (or other proven theorems)

Basic theorems of Boolean algebra

Theorem 1 (a): x + x = x (b): x x = x

Looks straightforward, but needs to be proven !

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Proof of x+x=x
We can only use

Huntington postulates:

Show that x+x=x.

x+x

= (x+x)1
= (x+x)(x+x)
= x+xx
= x+0
=x
Q.E.D.

Huntington postulates:
Post. 2: (a) x+0=x, (b) x1=x
Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) xy=yx
Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
(b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
Post. 5: (a) x+x=1, (b) xx=0

by 2(b)
by 5(a)
by 4(b)
by 5(b)
by 2(a)

We can now use Theorem 1(a) in future proofs

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Proof of xx=x
Similar to previous Huntington postulates:

proof

Post. 2: (a) x+0=x,

(b) x1=x
Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) xy=yx
Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
(b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
Post. 5: (a) x+x=1, (b) xx=0
Th. 1: (a) x+x=x

Show that xx = x.
xx
= xx+xx
= x(x+x)
= x1
=x
Q.E.D.

= xx+0 by 2(a)
by 5(b)
by 4(a)
by 5(a)
by 2(b)

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Proof of x+1=1
Huntington postulates:

Theorem 2(a): x + 1 = 1

x + 1 = 1 (x + 1)
=(x + x')(x + 1)
= x + x' 1
= x + x'
=1

by 2(b)
5(a)
4(b)
2(b)
5(a)

Post. 2: (a) x+0=x,

(b) x1=x
Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) xy=yx
Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
(b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
Post. 5: (a) x+x=1, (b) xx=0
Th. 1: (a) x+x=x

Theorem 2(b): x 0 = 0by duality

Theorem 3: (x')' = x

Postulate 5 defines the complement of x, x + x' = 1 and x x' = 0

The complement of x' is x is also (x')'

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Absorption Property (Covering)

Huntington postulates:

Theorem 6(a): x + xy = x
x + xy = x 1 + xy by 2(b)
= x (1 + y)
4(a)
= x (y + 1)
3(a)
=x1
Th 2(a)
=x
2(b)

Post. 2: (a) x+0=x,

(b) x1=x
Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) xy=yx
Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
(b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
Post. 5: (a) x+x=1, (b) xx=0
Th. 1: (a) x+x=x

Theorem 6(b): x (x + y) = x by duality

By means of truth table (another way to proof )

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xy

x+x
y

DeMorgans Theorem
Theorem 5(a): (x + y) = xy
Theorem 5(b): (xy) = x + y
By means of truth table

x+y

(x+y)

xy

xy

x+y'

(xy)

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Consensus Theorem
xy + xz + yz = xy + xz
2. (x+y)(x+z)(y+z) = (x+y)(x+z) -- (dual)
Proof:
xy + xz + yz = xy + xz + (x+x)yz
= xy + xz + xyz + xyz
= (xy + xyz) + (xz + xzy)
= xy + xz
QED (2 true by duality).
1.

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Operator Precedence
The operator precedence for evaluating Boolean

Expression is

Parentheses
NOT
AND
OR

Examples

x y' + z
(x y + z)'

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Boolean Functions
A Boolean function

Binary variables
Binary operators OR and AND
Unary operator NOT
Parentheses

Examples

F1= x y z'

F2 = x + y'z

F3 = x' y' z + x' y z + x y'

F4 = x y' + x' z

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Boolean Functions
The truth table of 2n entries

F1

F2

F3

F4

Two Boolean expressions may specify the same function

F3 = F4

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Boolean Functions
Implementation with logic gates

F4 is more economical

F2 = x + y'z

F3 = x' y' z + x' y z + x y'

F4 = x y' + x' z

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Algebraic Manipulation
To minimize Boolean expressions

Literal: a primed or unprimed variable (an input to a gate)

Term: an implementation with a gate
The minimization of the number of literals and the number of
terms a circuit with less equipment
It is a hard problem (no specific rules to follow)

Example 2.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

x(x'+y) = xx' + xy = 0+xy = xy

x+x'y = (x+x')(x+y) = 1 (x+y) = x+y
(x+y)(x+y') = x+xy+xy'+yy' = x(1+y+y') = x
xy + x'z + yz = xy + x'z + yz(x+x') = xy + x'z + yzx + yzx' =
xy(1+z) + x'z(1+y) = xy +x'z
(x+y)(x'+z)(y+z) = (x+y)(x'+z), by duality from function 4.
(consensus theorem with duality)

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Complement of a Function
An interchange of 0's for 1's and 1's for 0's in the value

of F

By DeMorgan's theorem
(A+B+C)' = (A+X)'
= A'X'
= A'(B+C)'
= A'(B'C')
= A'B'C'

let B+C = X
by theorem 5(a) (DeMorgan's)
substitute B+C = X
by theorem 5(a) (DeMorgan's)
by theorem 4(b) (associative)

Generalizations: a function is obtained by interchanging

AND and OR operators and complementing each literal.

(A+B+C+D+ ... +F)' = A'B'C'D'... F'

(ABCD ... F)' = A'+ B'+C'+D' ... +F'

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Examples
Example 2.2

F1' = (x'yz' + x'y'z)' = (x'yz')' (x'y'z)' = (x+y'+z) (x+y+z')

F2' = [x(y'z'+yz)]' = x' + (y'z'+yz)' = x' + (y'z')' (yz)

= x' + (y+z) (y'+z')
= x' + yz+y'z

Example 2.3: a simpler procedure

1.

Take the dual of the function and complement each literal

F1 = x'yz' + x'y'z.
The dual of F1 is (x'+y+z') (x'+y'+z).
Complement each literal: (x+y'+z)(x+y+z') = F1'

2.

F2 = x(y' z' + yz).

The dual of F2 is x+(y'+z') (y+z).
Complement each literal: x'+(y+z)(y' +z') = F2'

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2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms

Minterms and Maxterms
A minterm (standard product): an AND term consists of
all literals in their normal form or in their complement
form.

For example, two binary variables x and y,

xy, xy', x'y, x'y'

It is also called a standard product.

n variables con be combined to form 2n minterms.

A maxterm (standard sums): an OR term

It is also call a standard sum.

2n maxterms.

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Minterms and Maxterms

Each maxterm is the complement of its corresponding

minterm, and vice versa.

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Minterms and Maxterms

An Boolean function can be expressed by

A truth table
Sum of minterms
f1 = x'y'z + xy'z' + xyz = m1 + m4 +m7 (Minterms)

f2 = x'yz+ xy'z + xyz'+xyz = m3 + m5 +m6 + m7 (Minterms)

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Minterms and Maxterms

The complement of a Boolean function

The minterms that produce a 0

f1' = m0 + m2 +m3 + m5 + m6

= x'y'z'+x'yz'+x'yz+xy'z+xyz'

f1 = (f1')'
= (x+y+z)(x+y'+z) (x+y'+z') (x'+y+z')(x'+y'+z) = M0 M2 M3 M5 M6

f2 = (x+y+z)(x+y+z')(x+y'+z)(x'+y+z)=M0M1M2M4

Any Boolean function can be expressed as

A sum of minterms (sum meaning the ORing of terms).

A product of maxterms (product meaning the ANDing of
terms).
Both boolean functions are said to be in Canonical form.

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Sum of Minterms
Sum of minterms: there are 2n minterms and 22n

combinations of function with n Boolean variables.

Example 2.4: express F = A+BC' as a sum of minterms.

F = A+B'C = A (B+B') + B'C = AB +AB' + B'C = AB(C+C') +

AB'(C+C') + (A+A')B'C = ABC+ABC'+AB'C+AB'C'+A'B'C
F = A'B'C +AB'C' +AB'C+ABC'+ ABC = m1 + m4 +m5 + m6 + m7
F(A, B, C) = (1, 4, 5, 6, 7)
or, built the truth table first

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Product of Maxterms
Product of maxterms: using distributive law to expand.

x + yz = (x + y)(x + z) = (x+y+zz')(x+z+yy') = (x+y+z)(x+y+z')

(x+y'+z)

Example 2.5: express F = xy + x'z as a product of

maxterms.

F = xy + x'z = (xy + x')(xy +z) = (x+x')(y+x')(x+z)(y+z) = (x'+y)

(x+z)(y+z)
x'+y = x' + y + zz' = (x'+y+z)(x'+y+z')
F = (x+y+z)(x+y'+z)(x'+y+z)(x'+y+z') = M0M2M4M5
F(x, y, z) = (0, 2, 4, 5)

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Conversion between Canonical Forms

The complement of a function expressed as the sum of

minterms equals the sum of minterms missing from the

original function.

F(A, B, C) = (1, 4, 5, 6, 7)
Thus, F'(A, B, C) = (0, 2, 3)
By DeMorgan's theorem
F(A, B, C) = (0, 2, 3)
F'(A, B, C) =(1, 4, 5, 6, 7)
mj' = Mj
Sum of minterms = product of maxterms
Interchange the symbols and and list those numbers
missing from the original form

of 1's
of 0's

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 Example

F = xy + xz
F(x, y, z) = (1, 3, 6, 7)
F(x, y, z) = (0, 2, 4, 6)

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Standard Forms
Canonical forms are very seldom the ones with the

least number of literals.

Standard forms: the terms that form the function may
obtain one, two, or any number of literals.

Sum of products: F1 = y' + xy+ x'yz'

Product of sums: F2 = x(y'+z)(x'+y+z')

F3 = A'B'CD+ABC'D'

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Implementation
Two-level implementation

F1 = y' + xy+ x'yz'

Multi-level implementation

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F2 = x(y'+z)(x'+y+z')

2.7 Other Logic Operations (

2n rows in the truth table of n binary variables.
22n functions for n binary variables.
16 functions of two binary variables.

All the new symbols except for the exclusive-OR symbol

are not in common use by digital designers.

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Boolean Expressions

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2.8 Digital Logic Gates

Boolean expression: AND, OR and NOT operations
Constructing gates of other logic operations

The feasibility and economy;

The possibility of extending gate's inputs;
The basic properties of the binary operations (commutative and
associative);
The ability of the gate to implement Boolean functions.

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Standard Gates
Consider the 16 functions in Table 2.8 (slide 33)

Two are equal to a constant (F0 and F15).

Four are repeated twice (F4, F5, F10 and F11).

Inhibition (F2) and implication (F13) are not commutative or

associative.
The other eight: complement (F12), transfer (F3), AND (F1), OR
(F7), NAND (F14), NOR (F8), XOR (F6), and equivalence
(XNOR) (F9) are used as standard gates.

Complement: inverter.
Transfer: buffer (increasing drive strength).
Equivalence: XNOR.

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Summary of Logic Gates

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Figure 2.5 Digital logic gates

Summary of Logic Gates

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Figure 2.5 Digital logic gates

Multiple Inputs
Extension to multiple inputs

A gate can be extended to multiple inputs.

If its binary operation is commutative and associative.

AND and OR are commutative and associative.

OR
x+y = y+x
(x+y)+z = x+(y+z) = x+y+z

AND
xy = yx
(x y)z = x(y z) = x y z

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Multiple Inputs

NAND and NOR are commutative but not associative they

are not extendable.

Figure 2.6 Demonstrating the nonassociativity of the NOR operator;

(x y) z x (y z)

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Multiple Inputs

Multiple NOR = a complement of OR gate, Multiple NAND = a

complement of AND.
The cascaded NAND operations = sum of products.
The cascaded NOR operations = product of sums.

Figure 2.7 Multiple-input and cascated NOR and NAND gates

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Multiple Inputs

The XOR and XNOR gates are commutative and associative.

Multiple-input XOR gates are uncommon?
XOR is an odd function: it is equal to 1 if the inputs variables
have an odd number of 1's.

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Figure 2.8 3-input XOR gate

Positive and Negative Logic

Positive and Negative Logic

Two signal values <=> two logic

values
Positive logic: H=1; L=0
Negative logic: H=0; L=1

Consider a TTL gate

A positive logic AND gate

A negative logic OR gate
The positive logic is used in this
book

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Figure 2.9 Signal assignment and logic polarity

Positive and Negative Logic

July 17,Figure
201 2.10 Demonstration of positive and negative logic

2.9 Integrated Circuits

Level of Integration
An IC (a chip)
Examples:

Small-scale Integration (SSI): < 10 gates

Medium-scale Integration (MSI): 10 ~ 100 gates
Large-scale Integration (LSI): 100 ~ xk gates
Very Large-scale Integration (VLSI): > xk gates

VLSI

Small size (compact size)

Low cost
Low power consumption
High reliability
High speed

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Digital Logic Families

Digital logic families: circuit technology

TTL: transistor-transistor logic (dying?)

ECL: emitter-coupled logic (high speed, high power
consumption)
MOS: metal-oxide semiconductor (NMOS, high density)
CMOS: complementary MOS (low power)
BiCMOS: high speed, high density

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Digital Logic Families

The characteristics of digital logic families

Fan-out: the number of standard loads that the output of a

typical gate can drive.
Power dissipation.
Propagation delay: the average transition delay time for the
signal to propagate from input to output.
Noise margin: the minimum of external noise voltage that
caused an undesirable change in the circuit output.

July 17, 201

CAD
CAD Computer-Aided Design

Millions of transistors
Computer-based representation and aid
Automatic the design process
Design entry

Schematic capture
HDL Hardware Description Language
Verilog, VHDL

Simulation
Physical realization

ASIC, FPGA, PLD

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Chip Design
Why is it better to have more gates on a single chip?

Easier to build systems

Lower power consumption
Higher clock frequencies

What are the drawbacks of large circuits?

Complex to design
Chips have design constraints
Hard to test

Need tools to help develop integrated circuits

Computer Aided Design (CAD) tools

Automate tedious steps of design process
Hardware description language (HDL) describe circuits
VHDL (see the lab) is one such system

July 17, 201