Memory and process

management
Part 1: Memory Management of OS

Learning outcome
At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:
1) Identify between resident and transient routines
2) Explain the following terminology:
- Fixed-partition memory management
- Dynamic memory management
- Segmentation
- Paging
3) Explain dynamic address translation
4) Explain how virtual memory works

Memory management goals

Memory management is concerned with managing:
1)The computers available pool of memory
2)Allocating space to application routines and making
sure that they do not interfere with each other.

Resident & Transient Routines

The operating system is a collection of software

routines.

Resident routines

Transient routines

Routines that directly

support application
programs as they run

Stored on disk and read

into memory only when
needed

Example: routine that control Example: routine that

physical I/O
formats disks

Resident & Transient Routines

Generally, the operating system
occupies low memory beginning
with address 0.
Key control information comes
first followed by the various
resident operating system
routines.
The remaining memory, called
the transient area, is
where application programs and
transient operating system
routines are loaded.
Resident & transient routines
structure

Fixed-partition memory management

The simplest approach to managing memory for

multiple, concurrent programs.
On many systems,
multiple
programs are loaded into
memory and executed
concurrently.

Fixed-partition memory management

Divides the available space into fixed-length partitions, each
of which holds one program.
Partition sizes are generally set when the system is initially
started, so the memory allocation decision is made before the
actual amount of space needed by a given program is known.
Advantages:
- Its major advantage is simplicity
Disadvantages:
- Because the size of a partition must be big enough to hold the
largest program that is likely to be loaded,
fixed-partition memory management wastes space

Fixed-partition memory management

Fixed-partition memory
management divides
the
available space into
fixed length
partitions each of
which holds one
program.

Fixed-partition memory
management structure diagram

Dynamic memory management

Under dynamic memory management, the transient

area is treated as a pool of unstructured free space.
When the system decides to load a particular program, a
region of memory just sufficient to hold the program is
allocated from the pool.
Advantages:
Because a program gets only the space it needs
relatively little is wasted.
However, dynamic memory management does not
completely solve the wasted space problem.
Fragmentation (bits of unused space spread throughout
memory) is a possible problem.

Dynamic memory management

3 algorithm for searching free block for a specific amount of memory:
1) First fit
- Allocate the first free block that is large enough for the new process.
- This a fast algorithm.
2) Best fit
- Allocate the smallest block among those that are large enough for the
new process.
- OS search entire list, or it can keep it sorted and stop it when it has
an entry which has a size larger than the size of process.
- This algorithm produces the smallest left over block.

Dynamic memory management

3) Worst fit
- Allocate the largest block among those that are large enough
for the new process.
- Search or sorting of the entire list is needed.
- This algorithm produces the largest left over block.

Compaction:
Method to overcome the external fragmentation problem.
All free blocks are brought together as one large block of free
space.

Dynamic memory management

Assume, for example, that a 640K

program has just finished executing.
If there are no 640K programs
available, the system
might load a 250K program and a
300K program, but note that 90K
remains unallocated.
If there are no 90K or smaller
programs available, the space will
simply not be used.
Over time, little chunks of unused
space will be spread throughout
memory, creating a fragmentation
problem.

Segmentation

Concept : based on the common practice by programmers of

structuring their program in modules
Segmentation scheme : each job is divided into several
segment of different sizes. One for each module that
contains pieces that perform related function
Main memory is no longer divided into page frames because
the size of each segment is different (some are large some
are small)
When a program is compiled the segment are set up
according to the programs structural modules.

Segmentation

A program is a collection of segments. A segment is a

logical unit such as:
Main program ,subroutine
Procedure
Function
Method
Object
Local variable, global variable,
Stack, array ,symbol table

Segmentation

Memory-management scheme that supports user view

of memory.

Users View of a
Program

Segmentation
1
4

1
2
3
4

2
3

user space

physical memory space

Segmentation

With segmentation, programs are

divided into variable size segments,
instead of fixed size pages.
Every logical address is formed of a
segment name and an offset within
that segment.
In practice, segments are
numbered.
Programs are segmented
automatically by compiler or
assembler.

Segmentation

1)
2)
3)

For logical to physical address mapping, a segment table is

used.
When a logical address <s, d> is generated by processor:
Base and limit values corresponding to segment s are
determined using the segment table.
The OS checks whether d is in the limit. ( 0<=d<=limit)
If so, then the physical address is calculated as ( based + d),
and the memory is accessed.

Segmentation

length

base

SMT map two dimensional physical address; each table has

length : specifies the size of the segment
base : contain the starting physical address where the segments reside in
memory (memory address)

Segmentation

Dynamic address
translation.

To dynamically translate
a segment address to an
absolute address:
1) Break the address into
segment
and displacement
portions
2) Use the segment
number to find the
segments absolute entry
point
address in a program
segment table
3) Add the displacement
to the entry point
address.

Paging

A programs segments can vary in length.

Under paging, a program is broken into fixed-length pages. Page size
is generally small (perhaps 2K to 4K), and chosen with hardware
efficiency in mind.
Like segments, a programs pages are loaded into noncontiguous
memory.
Addresses consist of two parts , a page number in the high-order
positions and a displacement in the low-order bits.
Addresses are dynamically translated as the program runs. When an
instruction is fetched, its base-plus displacement addresses are
expanded to absolute addresses by hardware.
Then the pages base address is looked up in a program page table
(like the segment table, maintained by the operating system) and added
to the displacement.

Paging

Before execute a program/job, Memory Manager prepares it by

:
Determining the number of pages in the program
Locating enough empty pages frames in main memory
Loading all of the programs pages into pages frames
When program/job is initially prepared for loading, pages are in
logical sequence (the 1st page contain the first instructions of
the program and last page has the last instructions)
Program instruction can be thought as lines of code or bytes.

Paging

The loading process is different from the previous

schemes because the pages do not load in contiguous
memory blocks.
Each page can be stored in any available page frame.
Anywhere in main memory

Paging

Paging

Virtual Memory

The word virtual means not in actual fact.

Virtual memory it is a illusion of a memory which is different
from a real memory (RAM) existing in a computer system
To the programmer or user, virtual memory acts just like real memory,
but it isnt real memory.
This memory maybe much larger than the real memory.
Virtual memory is a model that holds space for the operating system
and several application programs.
The operating system and selected pages occupy real memory.
Application programs are stored on an external paging device.
The basis of VM implementation is noncontiguous memory allocation

Virtual Memory

Noncontiguous allocation permit parts of a program

to be loaded into two or more non-adjacent areas of
memory execution
This technique is reduce the problem of memory
fragmentation since free area memory can be
reused even the size is small than free memory.
VM implementation is an arrangement which enable
program to execute even when its entire code and
data are not present in the memory

Virtual Memory

The idea is to load required portion of code /data in

memory at any time
By this arrangement allow execution of program which
size program exceed the size of memory.
This strategy increases the number of program which can
accommodated in memory.
All modern general-purpose computer operating systems
use virtual memory techniques for ordinary applications,
such as word processors, spreadsheets, multimedia
players, accounting, etc

Virtual memory structure

Virtual memory structure

1)
-

Virtual memory is a model that simplifies address translation.

It contains the operating system and all the application
programs, but it does not physically exist anywhere.
Its contents are physically stored in real memory and on the
external paging device.
Divided into two components.
First components
The first is exactly equal to the amount of real memory on
the system and is physically stored in real memory.
It contains the resident operating system and the transient
program area (called the page pool).

Virtual memory structure

2) Second components
The second component of virtual memory consists of
space over and above real memory capacity.
It is physically stored on the external paging device and
contains the application programs.
The operating system is loaded into real memory.
Application programs are loaded onto the external
paging device.
Selected pages are then swapped between the real
memory page pool and the external paging device