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3.0 State Space Representation of Problems

This document discusses state space representation and search algorithms. It defines graphs and how they can represent state spaces, with nodes as states and arcs as operators. Several search algorithms are covered, including depth-first search (DFS), breadth-first search (BFS), and best-first search (BFS). DFS expands the deepest nodes first, acting like a stack. BFS expands the shallowest nodes first, acting like a queue. BFS uses heuristics to sort nodes by estimated distance to the goal. The 8-puzzle problem is provided as a example state space representation.

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81 views18 pages

3.0 State Space Representation of Problems

This document discusses state space representation and search algorithms. It defines graphs and how they can represent state spaces, with nodes as states and arcs as operators. Several search algorithms are covered, including depth-first search (DFS), breadth-first search (BFS), and best-first search (BFS). DFS expands the deepest nodes first, acting like a stack. BFS expands the shallowest nodes first, acting like a queue. BFS uses heuristics to sort nodes by estimated distance to the goal. The 8-puzzle problem is provided as a example state space representation.

Uploaded by

nikwplay
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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State Space Representation 3.

0
of Problems
3.1 Graphs
3.2 Formulating Search Problems
3.3 The 8-Puzzle as an example
3.4 State Space Representation using graphs
3.5 Performing a State Space Search
3.6 Basic Depth First Search (DFS)
3.7 Basic Breadth First Search (DFS)
3.8 Best First Search (DFS)

3.1 Graphs

Definitions:
a graph consists of:

3
4

A set of nodes N1, N2, N3,Nn.


A set of arcs that connect pairs
of nodes.

A directed graph has an


indicated direction for
traversing each arc.
A labeled graph has its
nodes labeled.
A labeled directed graph is
shown in figure 4.2

5
Figure 4.1:5 nodes, and 6
arcs graph.
a
b

c
d
e

Figure 4.2: Labeled directed graph


Nodes {a,b,c,d,e}
Arcs:{(a,b),(b,e),(c,a),(c,b), (d,c),
(e,d)}

A path through a graph connects a


sequence of nodes through
successive arcs. It is represented
by an ordered list of the nodes
representing the path.
For example in figure 4.3, [a, b, e,
d] is a path through nodes a ,b ,e , d.

A rooted graph has a unique node


(called the root ) such that there is
a path from the root to all nodes
within the graph. i.e. all paths
originate from the root ( figure
4.4).

a
b

c
d
e

Figure 4.3: dotted curve


indicates the path
[a,b,e,d]

The root

Figure 4.4: a rooted


graph

A tree is a graph in which


each two nodes have at
most one path between
them.
Figure 4.5 is an example of a
rooted tree.

If a directed arc connects Ni


to Nk then
Ni is the parent of Nk and
Nk is the child of Ni..
In figure 4.5: d is the parent
of e and f.
e and f are called siblings.

The root

b
h

Figure 4.5: a rooted tree

In a graph:
1. An ordered sequence of nodes [ N1, N2, N3 ..,
Nn], where each Ni, Ni+1 in the sequence
represent an arc (Ni,Ni+1), is called a path of
length n-1.
2. If a path contains any node more than once it
said to contain a cycle or loop.
3. Two nodes in a graph are said to be
connected if there is a path that includes
them both.
4. On a path on a rooted graph, a node is said
to be the ancestor of all nodes positioned
after it ( to its right) as well as descendent of
all nodes before it ( to its left)
-For example, in figure 4.5, d is the ancestor of e,
while it is the descendent of a in the path [a, d, e].

3.2 Formulating Search Problems


All search problems can be cast into the
following general form:
Starting State
E.g.
starting city for a route

Goal State (or a test for goal state)


E.g.
destination city

The permissible operators


E.g.
go to city X

A state is a data structure which captures all


relevant information about the problem.
E.g.
a node on a partial path

3.3 The 8-Puzzle as an example


The eight puzzle consists of a 3 x 3 grid with 8
consecutively numbered tiles arranged on it. Any
tile adjacent to the space can be moved on it. A
number of different goal states are used.
A state for this problem needs to keep
track of the position of all tiles on the
game board, with 0 representing the blank
position (space) on the board
The initial state could be represented as:
( (5,4,0), (6,1,8), (7,3,2) )
The final state could be represented as:
( (1,2,3) (8,0,4), (7,6,5) )
The operators can be thought of in terms
of the direction that the blank space
effectively moves. i.e.. up, down, left, right.

5 4 .

1 2 3

6 1 8

8 . 4

7 3 2

7 6 5

Start State Goal State

State Space Representation Using Graphs 3.4


In the state space representation of a
problem:
nodes of a graph correspond to partial
problem solution states.
arcs correspond to steps (application of
operators) in a problem solving process.
The root of the graph corresponds to the
initial state of the problem.
The goal node which may not exist, is a leaf
node which corresponds to a goal state.

State Space Search is the process of


finding a solution path from the start state
to a goal state.

The task of a search algorithm is to find a


solution path through such a problem
space.
The generation of new states ( expansion
of nodes) along the path is done by
applying the operators (such as legal
moves in a game).
A goal may describe
a statea winning board in a simple game.
or some property of the solution path itself
(length of the path) shortest path for example.

3.5 Performing a State Space Search

State space search involves finding a path from the initial state
of a search problem to a goal state.
To do this,
1-build a search graph, starting from the initial state (or the
goal state)
2- expand a state by applying the search operators to that
state, generating ALL of its successor states.
These successors are in the next level down of the search graph
3-The order in which we choose states for expansion is
determined by the search strategy
Different strategies result in (sometimes massively) different
behaviour
KEY CONCEPT: We want to find the solution while realizing
in memory as few as possible of the nodes in the search space.

3.6 Basic Depth First Search (DFS)


/* OPEN and CLOSED are lists */
OPEN = Start node, CLOSED = empty
While OPEN is not empty do
Remove leftmost state from OPEN, call it X
If X is a goal return success
Put X on CLOSED
Generate all successors of X
Eliminate any successors that are already
on OPEN or CLOSED
put remaining successors
on LEFT end of OPEN
End while
Note:
For depth first put successors on LEFT (i.e. acts like a STACK)
For breadth first put successors on Right (i.e. acts like a QUEUE)

Consider the following segment of a search for a solution to


the 8-Puzzle problem
a.The initial state

b. After expanding that state

c. After expanding "last" successor


generated

In depth first search, the "last" successor generated will


. be expanded next

Example: road map


Consider the following road map
A
Applying the DFS
1-Open=[S],

closed=[]

2-Open=[AC], closed=[S]
3-Open=[BC], closed=[AS]

4-Open=[DC], closed=[BAS]
A

5-Open=[GC], closed=[DBAS]
6-Open=[C],

closed=[GDBAS]

Report success

Path is SABDG
D

A
B

D
G

3.7 Basic Breadth First Search (BRFS)


/* OPEN and CLOSED are lists */
OPEN = Start node, CLOSED = empty
While OPEN is not empty do
Remove leftmost state from OPEN, call it X
If X is a goal return success
Put X on CLOSED
Generate all successors of X
Eliminate any successors that are already
on OPEN or CLOSED
put remaining successors
on RIGHT end of OPEN
End while
Note:
For depth first put successors on LEFT (i.e. acts like a STACK)
For breadth first put successors on RIGHT (i.e. acts like a QUEUE)

Example: road map


Consider the following road map
A
Applying the BRFS
1-Open=[S],

closed=[]

2-Open=[AC], closed=[S]
3-Open=[CB], closed=[AS]

4-Open=[BD], closed=[CAS]
A

5-Open=[D], closed=[CAS]
6-Open=[G],

closed=[DCAS]

7-Open=[],

closed=[GDCAS]

Report success

Path is SCDG

D
G

3.8 Best First Search (BFS)


/* OPEN and CLOSED are lists */
OPEN = Start node, CLOSED = empty
While OPEN is not empty do
Remove leftmost state from OPEN, call it X
If X is a goal return success
Put X on CLOSED
Generate all successors of X
Eliminate any successors that are already
on OPEN or CLOSED
put remaining successors on OPEN sorted
according to their heuristic distance to the
goal
( ascending from left to right)
End while

Example: road map


Consider the following road map
A
Applying the BFS
1-Open=[S],

closed=[]

3
S

2-Open=[C7A8], closed=[S]
3-Open=[D3A8], closed=[CS]

4-Open=[G0B3A8], closed=[DCS]
A

5-Open=[B3A8], closed=[GDCS]

Report success
Path is SCDG

A
B

D
G

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