Lecture 3

Basic Principles of Intersection

Signalisation

Lecture 3

Design Manual for Traffic Signals in

Ireland
The Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB) was introduced in
1992 in England and Wales, and subsequently in Scotland and
Northern Ireland. A modified version, the National Roads Authority
Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (NRA DMRB) was formally
introduced for use in Ireland from 2001. The DMRB provides a
comprehensive manual system which accommodates, within a set of
loose-leaf volumes, all current standards, advice notes and other
published documents relating to the design, assessment and
operation of trunk roads (including motorways) in the United Kingdom.
The NRA DMRB takes the DMRB and adapts it for use on national
roads in Ireland through a series of implementation documents. These
take the form of NRA Addenda to the individual documents contained
in the DMRB and, in some cases, complete replacement NRA
Standards. At present the NRA DMRB only implements the design
standards contained in Volumes 1,2,4,5,6,7,8 and part of 9 of the
DMRB.

Lecture 3

Assessing the need for signalisation

Lecture 3

Four basic mechanisms

1. Discharge headways, Saturation flow
2. The critical lane and time budget concept
3. Effects of right turning vehicles
4. Delay

Discharge Headways

Lecture 3

The first discharge headway is the time between the initiation of

the green indication and the rear wheels of the first vehicle to cross
over the stop line.
The Nth discharge headway (N>1) is the time between the rear
wheels of the N-1 th and N th vehicles crossing over the stop line.

The headway begins to level off with 4 or 5th vehicle.

The level headway = saturation headway

Saturation flow rate

Lecture 3

In a given lane, if every vehicle consumes an average of h

seconds of green time, and if the signal continues to be
uninterruptedly green, then S vph could enter the intersection
3600 rate (vehicles per hour of green
where S is the saturation
flow
S
h
time per lane) given by

Lost time

Lecture 3

Start-up lost time: At the beginning of each green indication as

the first few cars in a standing queue experience start-up delays,

l1 e(i )

e(i) = (actual headway-h) for vehicle I calculated for all vehicles

with headway>h
green time necessary to clear N vehicles,
T l1 h( N )
The change interval lost time: It is estimated by the amount
of the change interval not used by vehicles; this is generally a
portion of the yellow plus all-red intervals.
The 1994 Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) adds the two lost
times together to form one lost time and put it at the beginning
of an interval. Default value = 3.0 seconds per phase

Effective green time &

Capacity
of Lane group
g G Y t
i

Lecture 3

t L l1 l2

Actual green time

Yellow + all red time
Total lost time

The ratio of effective green time to cycle length is green

ratio
Saturation flow rate of a lane group is the theoretical
capacity of the lane group if 100%
gi green time was available.
ci si
C
Actual capacity of a lane group,

Graphical representation

Lecture 3

Example

Lecture 3

A given movement at a signalised intersection receives a 27second green time, and 3 seconds of yellow plus all red out of a 60
second cycle. If the saturation headway is 2.14 seconds/vehicle,
the start-up lost time is 2 seconds/phase and the clearance lost
time is 1 second/phase, what is the capacity of the movement per
lane?

Critical Lane

Lecture 3

This concept is used for the allocation of the 3600 seconds in

the hour to lost time and to productive movement.
The amount of time required for each signal phase is
determined by the most intensely used lane which is permitted
to move during the phase. All other lane movement in the
phase require less time than the critical lane. The timings of
any signal phase is based on the flow and lost times of the
critical lane.
Each signal phase has one and only one critical lane.
Capacity can be maximum sum of critical lane volumes that a
signal can accommodate.
The max.
total
volume that can be
1
3600

Vc lanes
3600 for
( N )(atL )(
)time budget (within an
handled on all critical
given

h
C
hour),

Lecture 3

Capacity (using critical Lane volume)

the effect of number of phases and cycle time on

Vc
Lost time remains constant through out
(h= 2.15s, lost time = 3s/phase)

v/c ratio and PHF

Lecture 3

(volume-to-capacity) V/C ratio: In signal analysis, the v/c ratio is often

referred to as the "degree of saturation". The v/c ratio is the ratio of the
actual or projected demand flow rate (during the peak period, usually
defined as 15 minutes) in a lane group, and the capacity of the lane
group.
When analyzing an existing facility under existing conditions, a measured
flow rate is compared to an estimated capacity. To be meaningful, the
existing flow rates should represent arrival flows, Often, however, it is
easier to count departure flows; and this is what many intersection
volume studies actually document. Where departure flows are used as the
basis for a capacity analysis, a resulting v/c ratio> 1.00 cannot be
accepted as accurate. If the departure count is correct, then the capacity
of the lane group must be equal to or greater than the observed flow.
When analysis "predicts" a v/c ratio in excess of 1.00, only one
interpretation is possible: capacity has been underestimated.
The PHF is used as a volume adjustment factor. This adjustment assumes
that all movements peak during the same 15-minute time-period. It is a
very conservative assumption.

Lecture 3

Consideration of v/c ratio and PHF

The cycle length equation becomes,

Cdes

Nt L
Vc
1
PHF (v / c)(3600 / h)

Effects of right-turning vehicles

Lecture 3

Effects of right-turning vehicles

Lecture 3

Right turns can be made from a

Shared lane operation

Exclusive lane operation

Traffic signals may allow permitted or protected right turn
Right-turning vehicles look for a gap in the opposing traffic on
a permitted turning movement, which is made through a
conflicting pedestrian or an opposing vehicle flow.
Right-turning vehicles consume more effective green time
than through vehicles.

Lecture 3

Effects of right-turning vehicles

Through Car Equivalent
depends on the opposing
flows, and the number of opposing lanes

Lecture 3

Example
Example: consider an approach with 10% RT, two lanes,
permitted RT phasing, a RT equivalency factor of 5, and an
ideal saturation headway of 2 sec per veh. Determine
(1) the equivalent saturation headway for this case,
(2) the saturation flow rate for approach, and
(3) the adjustment factor for the sat. flow rate? (adj. flow rate
/ sat flow rate of TH vehicles)

Lecture 3

Calculation of cycle length

Min. cycle length,
C

min

NtL
Vc
1
3600 h

Considering desired v/c ratio,

Considering peaking within hour,
Desirable cycle length,
Cmin

NtL
Vc
1
PHF v c 3600 h

Lecture 3

Performance measures

Delay, Queuing, Stops

Delay most directly affects drivers experience.

Lecture 3

Performance measures

Stopped Time Delay: time a vehicle stopped waiting to pass the

intersection.
Approach Delay:
stopped time + acceleration + deceleration
Travel Time Delay: (actual travel time-desired travel time)
Time-in-queue Delay: Total time from joining a queue to passing the stop
line

Lecture 3

Websters Delay Model

Delay

Websters uniform delay (UD) formula

Lecture 3

Websters Delay Model

Websters uniform delay (UD) formula
Red time,
Height of the triangle,

Delay

Area of the triangle, (UD)

Average delay per vehicle,

C 1 g c
UD=
2 1 v s

Lecture 3

Different types of delay

Lecture 3

Websters optimum cycle length

Delay

developed based on minimization of overall delay

at the intersection.

Lecture 3

Delay

Websters optimum cycle length

Signal Timing Designs

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Lecture 3

Development of a phase plan and sequence

Timing of yellow and all-red intervals for each phase.
Determination of cycle length.
Green time distribution.
Checking pedestrian crossing requirements.

Safety (conflict avoidance) and the quality of service are the

most important factors in designing signals.
The process is not exact, nor is there often a single right
design and timing for a traffic control signal.

Phase diagram and ring diagram

Lecture 3

Phase diagram and ring diagram

Lecture 3

A ring of a controller generally controls one set of signal

faces. Thus, while a phase involving two opposing through
movements would be shown in one block of a phase diagram,
each movement would be separately shown in a ring diagram.

Lecture 3

Right turn protection

Lecture 3

If vRT (Volume of right turning vehicles)<100 vph protection is rarely

used
vRT 250 to 300 vph protection is almost always used
Between these bounds, the provision of RT protection must consider
opposing volumes and number of lanes, accident experience, system
signal constraints, etc.
Two general guidelines:
vRT 200 vph
vRT *(vO / No) 50,000 (Cross product rule)
[vO: Opposing flow volume; NO: Opposing no. of lanes]
Protected+permitted phase is used when full protection leads to
undesirably long cycle length
When exclusive right-turn phases are used, the two opposing rightturns are given the same amount of green time. This can be inefficient
where the turning volumes are different. In these cases, the exclusive
turning phase is split into leading and/or lagging green phases.

Splitting the exclusive RT phase

Lecture 3

One direction is released while the other is held. The following

type of phasing is called overlapping phases.
The ring diagram is used to calculate the number of phases. The
number is decided by counting the phases boundaries in the
ring diagram.
This plan is a 3 phase signal

Leading green for EB RT

Overlapping phase
Lagging green for WB RT
compound phase if RTs
are permitted.

Leading or lagging green phase

Lecture 3

The possible options of using leading or lagging phases:

A leading green may be used without a lagging green (Tintersection or one-way street)
The correct phase plan i.e. the number of phases can be
found out from the ring diagram
No. of phases is critical as that specifies the set of lost times
to be calculated
A compound phasing can be created by allowing permitted
RTs in the overlapping phase. This is specially useful when
road geometry do not allow for an exclusive RT lane.
Leading and lagging phase controllers are no longer
manufactured by NEMA. But this type of design is still in use.

Lecture 3

Intergreen/Change/Clearance Period

Intergreen consists of either yellow or (yellow + all-red)

periods. It alerts motorists regarding the change from green
to red light.
When yellow light appears, drivers at a distance longer than
their stopping distance will be able to stop comfortably;
those who are nearer to the stop line than their safe stopping
distance will accelerate and clear the intersection.
For the case of stopping: xc is the minimum comfortable
stopping distance. Any shorter, it would be uncomfortable,
unsafe, or impossible.

Lecture 3

Intergreen/Change/Clearance Period
The intergreen time is,

(x+W+L)/v
x: safe stopping distance
L: vehicle length
v: Vehicle legal speed

Lecture 3

Intergreen/Change/Clearance
For a particular site, the relative magnitudes
Period
of the two critical distances x , x determine
c

whether a vehicle can or cannot safely

execute either or both manoeuvres. (fig. a-c)
In the fig. a, xcxo , the driver can execute
manoeuvre no matter where the vehicle is
located at the onset of yellow. where xc> xo
(fig. c), a dilemma zone of (xc-xo) exists: a
vehicle approaching the intersection at the
legal speed limit can execute neither stop
nor go safely, legally, and comfortably if it
happens to be located within the dilemma
zone at the onset of yellow.
The dilemma zone can be eliminated either
by changing the speed limit or by selecting
an appropriate minimum duration for the
yellow signal phase that results in xc=xo

Pedestrian requirements
Safety dictates some minimum assured crossing
pedestrians. This in turn impacts vehicular traffic
Minimum pedestrian crossing times (pedestrian green)

Diagram for Gp calculation,

Lecture 3

times

for

Lecture 3

The methodology for establishing an initial

signal
timing
is as signal
follows:
1.
Develop
a reasonable
phase plan in accordance with
the principles discussed so far. DO NOT include any
compound phasing in the preliminary signal timing.
Consider a protected right-turn phase for any right-turning
movement
2. Convert all left-turning and right-turning volumes to
through car equivalents (tcu's) using Tables 1 and 2.

Lecture 3
3. Establish a reasonable phase plan using the principles discussed so far.
Determine the actual sum of critical lane volumes, Vco using this plan. Use
volumes in tcu's for this purpose. Check the sum of critical lane volumes in tcu's
for reasonableness. Make any adjustments necessary.
4. Using following equation,

Nt L
3N
C

des
determine the desirable
cycle lengthV based on a desired vlc (0.85-0.90) ratio and
Vc
c
1

the PHF PHF (v / c)(3600 / h) 1 1615 PHF (v / c)

5. Once the cycle length is determined, the available effective green time in the
cycle must be divided (split) among the various signal phases in proportion to
Vci/Vc.

gTOT C L
Vci

V
c

g i gTOT *

Capacity Analysis

Lecture 3

In capacity analysis the substantive results of signalized intersection

analysis are realized for first time.
1. Determining v/s ratios: The volume or total flow rates adjusted for
the PHF and lane distribution. The total saturation flow rates for each
lane group, adjusted for eight types of prevailing conditions. The
capacity analysis begins by computing the ratio of these results (v/s) for
each lane group.
2. Determining critical lane groups and the sum of critical lane
v/s ratios: Critical lane groups are determined by comparing adjusted
per lane flows in each lane group using a ring diagram. Critical lane
groups are identified by comparing v/s ratios. The approach and
methodology is the same as done by comparing lane flows. Ring
diagrams are used to identify overlapping portions of the signal phase.
The (v/s)ci is used to calculate min practical cycle time. (shown with
example in next two slides)
But at this stage, the signal timing has already been specified. Thus,
there is an iterative process at work in which signal timing affects v/s
ratios, while resulting v/s ratios can be used to affect signal timing.

Capacity Analysis

Lecture 3

Capacity Analysis

Lecture 3

The total length of phases A and B is controlled either by the left ring (the
WB through movement), or by the right ring (the combination of the WB left
turn and the EB through/right-turn movement).The v/s ratio for the WB
through movement, 0.45, is compared to the sum of the v/s ratios for the WB
left turn and the EB through/right-turn movements, 0.20 + 0.35 = 0.55. The
right ring involves the highest sum of v/s ratios, and is the critical path.
Phase C is discrete. The larger v/s ratio for the two lane groups in the phase
determines which is critical. In this case, the NB right-turn lane group is
critical, with a v/s ratio of 0.35.
Thus, the critical lane groups are the WB LT, the EB TH/RT, and the NB RT. As
there are three critical movements (there could have been only two in this
case), this signalization involves three sets of lost times in each cycle.
The sum of the critical lane group v/s ratios, (v/s)ci may also be determined.
In the sample case, the sum is 0.20 + 0.35 + 0.35 = 0.90. Hence, the signal
timing must allocate 0.90 of real time as effective green. Conversely, only 1 0.90 = 0.10 of real time is available to allocate to lost times. If (v/s)ci value
is greater than 1.00, it is clear that the specified geometric design and
signalization are inadequate to handle the specified demand flows.

Capacity Analysis

Lecture 3

3. Determining lane group capacities and v/c ratios:

Individual lane group capacities can be determined from
saturation flow rates and v/c ratios can then be directly computed
by dividing the lane group demand flow rate by the capacity. The
critical v/c ratio for the intersection may also be found.
A value of Xc> 1.00 indicates that the cycle length, phase plan,
and geometry specified are inadequate to handle critical flows in
the intersection. An increase in the cycle length, a more efficient
phase plan, and/or addition of lanes to critical lane groups would
be necessary to remedy the situation. If X c<= 1.00, the specified
cycle length, phase plan, and geometry are adequate. If X c>=
1.00, and Xi for one or more lane groups is greater than 1.00, the
situation can be remedied by reallocation of green time within the
specified cycle length and phase plan.

Capacity Analysis

Lecture 3

4. Modifying signal timing based on v/s ratios: The results of capacity

analysis may indicate a need to adjust the cycle length and/or reallocate
green time. While this can be done on a trial-and-error basis, v/s ratios can be
used as well. The following equation can be used in this purpose.
In general, green is allocated to provide for equal X i in all critical lane groups.
To accomplish this, each Xi for a critical lane group must be set equal to X c It is
also possible to set Xi to 1.00 (or close to 1.00) for minor movements, such as
a protected right turn, assigning all excess green time to through movements.
This policy almost always results in very high delays to the minor movements,
however.
The design process is iterative. If a reasonable signal timing methodology is
used initially, specified signal timings should not produce terribly
unreasonable results. Even where totally inadequate signal timing is initially
proposed, the timing can be refined with capacity analysis, and the solution
reworked. Once a reasonable timing is established, small trial-and-error
changes using software should result in optimal timing without extraordinary
effort.

Lecture 3

LOS
The measure of effectiveness for signalized intersection level
of service is average individual stopped-time delay. A delay
value is estimated for each lane group; results are then
aggregated to obtain averages for each approach, and finally
to obtain an average value for the intersection as a whole.

Lecture 3

LOS

In order of importance, the three variables affecting delay are cycle length,
green time, and v/c ratio. All of the models, assume random arrivals. The
variable having the largest impact on delay values is the quality of
progression. This is accounted for using an adjustment factor applied to a
delay estimate for random arrivals. The importance of this is that the v/c
ratio has a relatively small effect on delay compared to other variables.

In signalized intersection analysis, a delay of over 60 seconds/vehicle (LOS

F) may occur on a lane group with a v/c ratio under 1.00, even significantly
so. Thus, situations arise in which the LOS is F because of high delay, but
there is no evidence of a breakdown in flow. High delays occur frequently
when cycle lengths are long and the green time for the subject movement
is short. Exclusive right-turn phases, for example, often involve short green
intervals in a long cycle length. Even if capacity is sufficient, the delays
involved could exceed 60 seconds/vehicle. For signalized intersections,
therefore, LOS F does not necessarily imply the "failure" of a lane group
(i.e., insufficient capacity for existing or projected demand).