William Stallings Computer Organization and Architecture 8 Edition

William Stallings
Computer Organization
and Chapter
Architecture
13
8 th
Edition
Reduced Instruction Set Computers
Major Advances in
Computers(1)
• The family concept
– IBM System/360 1964
– DEC PDP-8
– Separates architecture from implementation
• Microporgrammed control unit
– Idea by Wilkes 1951
– Produced by IBM S/360 1964
• Cache memory
– IBM S/360 model 85 1969
Major Advances in
Computers(2)
• Solid State RAM
– (See memory notes)
• Microprocessors
– Intel 4004 1971
• Pipelining
– Introduces parallelism into fetch execute
cycle
• Multiple processors
The Next Step - RISC
• Reduced Instruction Set Computer
• Key features
– Large number of general purpose registers
– or use of compiler technology to optimize
register use
– Limited and simple instruction set
– Emphasis on optimising the instruction pipeline
Comparison of processors
Driving force for CISC
• Software costs far exceed hardware costs
• Increasingly complex high level languages
• Semantic gap
• Leads to:
– Large instruction sets
– More addressing modes
– Hardware implementations of HLL statements
• e.g. CASE (switch) on VAX
Intention of CISC
• Ease compiler writing
• Improve execution efficiency
– Complex operations in microcode
• Support more complex HLLs
Execution Characteristics
• Operations performed
• Operands used
• Execution sequencing
• Studies have been done based on
programs written in HLLs
• Dynamic studies are measured
during the execution of the program
Operations
• Assignments
– Movement of data
• Conditional statements (IF, LOOP)
– Sequence control
• Procedure call-return is very time
consuming
• Some HLL instruction lead to many
machine code operations
Weighted Relative Dynamic
Frequency of HLL Operations
[PATT82a]
Machine-Instruction Memory-Reference
Dynamic Occurrence Weighted Weighted
Pascal C Pascal C Pascal C
ASSIGN 45% 38% 13% 13% 14% 15%
LOOP 5% 3% 42% 32% 33% 26%
CALL 15% 12% 31% 33% 44% 45%
IF 29% 43% 11% 21% 7% 13%
GOTO — 3% — — — —
OTHER 6% 1% 3% 1% 2% 1%
Operands
• Mainly local scalar variables
• Optimisation should concentrate on
accessing local variables
Pascal C Average
Integer Constant 16% 23% 20%
Scalar Variable 58% 53% 55%
Array/Structure 26% 24% 25%

Procedure Calls
• Very time consuming
• Depends on number of parameters
passed
• Depends on level of nesting
• Most programs do not do a lot of
calls followed by lots of returns
• Most variables are local
• (c.f. locality of reference)
Implications
• Best support is given by optimising most
used and most time consuming features
• Large number of registers
– Operand referencing
• Careful design of pipelines
– Branch prediction etc.
• Simplified (reduced) instruction set
Large Register File
• Software solution
– Require compiler to allocate registers
– Allocate based on most used variables in
a given time
– Requires sophisticated program analysis
• Hardware solution
– Have more registers
– Thus more variables will be in registers
Registers for Local Variables
• Store local scalar variables in registers
• Reduces memory access
• Every procedure (function) call changes
locality
• Parameters must be passed
• Results must be returned
• Variables from calling programs must be
restored
Register Windows
• Only few parameters
• Limited range of depth of call
• Use multiple small sets of registers
• Calls switch to a different set of
registers
• Returns switch back to a previously
used set of registers
Register Windows cont.
• Three areas within a register set
– Parameter registers
– Local registers
– Temporary registers
– Temporary registers from one set overlap
parameter registers from the next
– This allows parameter passing without
moving data
Overlapping Register
Windows
Circular Buffer diagram
Operation of Circular Buffer
• When a call is made, a current window
pointer is moved to show the currently
active register window
• If all windows are in use, an interrupt is
generated and the oldest window (the one
furthest back in the call nesting) is saved to
memory
• A saved window pointer indicates where the
next saved windows should restore to
Global Variables
• Allocated by the compiler to memory
– Inefficient for frequently accessed
variables
• Have a set of registers for global
variables
Registers v Cache
Large Register File Cache
All local scalars Recently-used local scalars
Individual variables Blocks of memory
Compiler-assigned global variables Recently-used global variables
Save/Restore based on procedure nesting depth Save/Restore based on cache replacement algorithm
Register addressing Memory addressing

Referencing a Scalar -
Window Based Register File
Referencing a Scalar -
Cache
Compiler Based Register
Optimization
• Assume small number of registers (16-32)
• Optimizing use is up to compiler
• HLL programs have no explicit references
to registers
– usually - think about C - register int
• Assign symbolic or virtual register to each
candidate variable
• Map (unlimited) symbolic registers to real
registers
• Symbolic registers that do not overlap can
share real registers
• If you run out of real registers some
variables use memory
Graph Coloring
• Given a graph of nodes and edges
• Assign a color to each node
• Adjacent nodes have different colors
• Use minimum number of colors
• Nodes are symbolic registers
• Two registers that are live in the same
program fragment are joined by an edge
• Try to color the graph with n colors, where n
is the number of real registers
• Nodes that can not be colored are placed in
memory
Graph Coloring Approach
Why CISC (1)?
• Compiler simplification?
– Disputed…
– Complex machine instructions harder to exploit
– Optimization more difficult
• Smaller programs?
– Program takes up less memory but…
– Memory is now cheap
– May not occupy less bits, just look shorter in symbolic form
• More instructions require longer op-codes
• Register references require fewer bits
Why CISC (2)?
• Faster programs?
– Bias towards use of simpler instructions
– More complex control unit
– Microprogram control store larger
– thus simple instructions take longer to execute
• It is far from clear that CISC is the

appropriate solution
RISC Characteristics
• One instruction per cycle
• Register to register operations
• Few, simple addressing modes
• Few, simple instruction formats
• Hardwired design (no microcode)
• Fixed instruction format
• More compile time/effort
RISC v CISC
• Not clear cut
• Many designs borrow from both
philosophies
• e.g. PowerPC and Pentium II
RISC Pipelining
• Most instructions are register to register
• Two phases of execution
– I: Instruction fetch
– E: Execute
• ALU operation with register input and output
• For load and store
– I: Instruction fetch
– E: Execute
• Calculate memory address
– D: Memory
• Register to memory or memory to register
operation
Effects of Pipelining
Optimization of Pipelining
• Delayed branch
– Does not take effect until after execution of following
instruction
– This following instruction is the delay slot
• Delayed Load
– Register to be target is locked by processor
– Continue execution of instruction stream until register required
– Idle until load complete
– Re-arranging instructions can allow useful work whilst loading
• Loop Unrolling
– Replicate body of loop a number of times
– Iterate loop fewer times
– Reduces loop overhead
– Increases instruction parallelism
– Improved register, data cache or TLB locality
Loop Unrolling Twice
Example
do i=2, n-1
a[i] = a[i] + a[i-1] * a[i+l]
end do
Becomes
do i=2, n-2, 2
a[i] = a[i] + a[i-1] * a[i+i]
a[i+l] = a[i+l] + a[i] * a[i+2]
end do
if (mod(n-2,2) = i) then
a[n-1] = a[n-1] + a[n-2] * a[n]
end if
Normal and Delayed Branch
Address Normal Branch Delayed Branch Optimized
Delayed Branch
100 LOAD X, rA LOAD X, rA LOAD X, rA
101 ADD 1, rA ADD 1, rA JUMP 105
102 JUMP 105 JUMP 106 ADD 1, rA
103 ADD rA, rB NOOP ADD rA, rB
104 SUB rC, rB ADD rA, rB SUB rC, rB
105 STORE rA, Z SUB rC, rB STORE rA, Z
106 STORE rA, Z

Use of Delayed Branch
Controversy
• Quantitative
– compare program sizes and execution speeds
• Qualitative
– examine issues of high level language
support and use of VLSI real estate
• Problems
– No pair of RISC and CISC that are directly
comparable
– No definitive set of test programs
– Difficult to separate hardware effects from
complier effects
– Most comparisons done on “toy” rather than
production machines
– Most commercial devices are a mixture

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William Stallings

Pascal C Pascal C Pascal C

ASSIGN 45% 38% 13% 13% 14% 15%

LOOP 5% 3% 42% 32% 33% 26%

CALL 15% 12% 31% 33% 44% 45%

IF 29% 43% 11% 21% 7% 13%

Integer Constant 16% 23% 20%

Scalar Variable 58% 53% 55%

Array/Structure 26% 24% 25%

All local scalars Recently-used local scalars

Individual variables Blocks of memory

Compiler-assigned global variables Recently-used global variables

Register addressing Memory addressing

• It is far from clear that CISC is the

100 LOAD X, rA LOAD X, rA LOAD X, rA

101 ADD 1, rA ADD 1, rA JUMP 105

102 JUMP 105 JUMP 106 ADD 1, rA

103 ADD rA, rB NOOP ADD rA, rB

104 SUB rC, rB ADD rA, rB SUB rC, rB

105 STORE rA, Z SUB rC, rB STORE rA, Z

106 STORE rA, Z

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