Chapter 6

PID Control

PID Controls
Most common controller in the CPI.
Came into use in 1930s with the
introduction of pneumatic controllers.
Extremely flexible and powerful control
algorithm when applied properly.

General Feedback Control Loop

D(s)

G d (s)

sp

(s)

+-

E(s)

G c (s)

Y s (s)

C(s)

G a (s)

G s (s)

U(s)

G p (s)

+
+

Y(s)

Closed Loop Transfer Functions

From the general feedback control loop and using
the properties of transfer functions, the following
expressions can be derived:

G p ( s ) Ga ( s ) Gc ( s )
Y ( s)

Ysp ( s ) G p ( s ) Ga ( s ) Gc ( s ) Gs ( s ) 1
Gd ( s )
Y (s)

D ( s ) G p ( s ) Ga ( s ) Gc ( s ) Gs ( s ) 1

Characteristic Equation
Since setpoint tracking and disturbance rejection
have the same denominator for their closed loop
transfer functions, this indicates that both setpoint
tracking and disturbance rejection have the same
general dynamic behavior.
The roots of the denominator determine the dynamic
characteristics of the closed loop process.
The characteristic equation is given by:

G p ( s ) Ga ( s ) Gc ( s ) Gs ( s ) 1 0

Characteristic Equation Example

Consider the dynamic behavior of a P-only controller
applied to a CST thermal mixer (Kp=1; p=60 sec)
where the temperature sensor has a s=20 sec and a is
assumed small. Note that Gc(s)=Kc.

Substituting into the characteristic equation

1
1
Kc
1 0

60 s 1 20 s 1
After rearranging into the standard form,

1200
p
1 Kc

1.15

1 Kc

Example Continued- Analysis of

the Closed Loop Poles
When Kc =0, poles are -0.05 and -0.0167 which
correspond to the inverse of p and s.
As Kc is increased from zero, the values of the poles
begin to approach one another.
Critically damped behavior occurs when the poles
are equal.
Underdamped behavior results when Kc is increased
further due to the imaginary components in the poles.

Position Form of the PID

Algorithm

1
c(t ) c0 K c e(t )
I

d e(t )
e(t )dt D

dt
Reverse acting

1
c(t ) c0 K c e(t )
I

d e(t )
e(t )dt D

dt
Direct acting

Definition of Terms
e(t)- the error from setpoint [e(t)=ysp-ys].
Kc- the controller gain is a tuning parameter and
largely determines the controller aggressiveness.
I- the reset time is a tuning parameter and
determines the amount of integral action.
D- the derivative time is a tuning parameter and
determines the amount of derivative action.

Level Control Example

in

LT

LC

L
F

out

Process gain is positive

because when flow in is
increased, the level
increases.
If the final control element
is direct acting, use reverse
acting PID.
For reverse acting final
control element, use direct
acting PID.

Level Control Example

F

in

LT

LC

L
F

out

Process gain is negative

because when flow out
is increased, the level
decreases.
If the final control
element is direct acting,
use direct acting PID.
For reverse acting final
control element, use
reverse acting PID.

Guidelines for Selecting Direct

and Reverse Acting PIDs
Consider a direct acting final control element
to be positive and reverse to be negative.
If the sign of the product of the final control
element and the process gain is positive, use
the reverse acting PID algorithm.
If the sign of the product is negative, use the
direct acting PID algorithm.

Proportional Band
100%
PB
Kc
Another way to express the controller gain.
Kc in this formula is dimensionless. That is, the
controller output is scaled 0-100% and the error
from setpoint is scaled 0-100%.
In more frequent use 10-15 years ago, but it still
appears as an option on DCSs.

Conversion from PB to Kc
Proportional band is equal to 200%.
The range of the error from setpoint is 200 psi.
The controller output range is 0 to 100%.
100% 100%
K

0.5
PB
200%
100%
K c 0 .5
0.25 % / psi
200 psi
D
c

Digital Equivalent of PID

Controller

e(t ) dt

e(i t ) t
i 1

d e(t ) e(t ) e(t t )

dt
t

The trapezoidal
approximation of the
integral.
Backward difference
approximation of the
first derivative

Digital Version of PID Control

Algorithm

t n
e(t ) e(t t )
c(t ) c0 K c e(t ) e(i t ) D

I i 1
t

t
n
t

Derivation of the Velocity Form

of the PID Control Algorithm

c (t ) c0 K c e(t )
I

e(i t )
i 1

e(t ) e(t t )

t n 1
e(t t ) e(t 2t )
c(t t ) c0 K c e(t t ) e(i t ) D

t
I i 1

________________________________________________________

t e(t )
e(t ) 2e(t t ) e(t 2t )
c(t ) K c e(t ) e(t t )
D

I
t

Velocity Form of PID Controller

t e(t )
e(t ) 2e(t t ) e(t 2t )
c(t ) K c e(t ) e(t t )
D

I
t

c(t ) c(t t ) c(t )

c(t ) c(t t ) c(t )

Reverse Acting Controller

Direct Acting Controller

Note the difference in proportional, integral, and

derivative terms from the position form.
Velocity form is the form implemented on DCSs.

Correction for Derivative Kick

Derivative kick occurs when a setpoint change is
applied that causes a spike in the derivative of the
error from setpoint.
Derivative kick can be eliminated by replacing the
approximation of the derivative based on the error
from setpoint with the negative of the approximation
of the derivative based on the measured value of the
controlled variable, i.e.,

y s (t ) 2 y s (t t ) y s (t 2 t )
D
t

Correction for Aggressive

Setpoint Tracking
For certain process, tuning the controller for good
disturbance rejection performance results in
excessively aggressive action for setpoint changes.
This problem can be corrected by removing the
setpoint from the proportional term. Then setpoint
tracking is accomplished by integral action only.
K c e(t ) e(t t ) substituted for by K c y s (t t ) y s (t )

The Three Versions of the PID

Algorithm Offered on DCSs
(1) The original form in which the
proportional, integral, and derivative terms
are based on the error from setpoint

t e(t )
e(t ) 2e(t t ) e(t 2t )
c(t ) K c e(t ) e(t t )
D

I
t

The Three Versions of the PID

Algorithm Offered on DCSs
(2) The form in which the proportional and
integral terms are based on the error from
setpoint while the derivative-on-measurement
is used for the derivative term.

t e(t )
y s (t ) 2 y s (t t ) y s (t 2t )
c(t ) K c e(t ) e(t t )
D

I
t

The Three Versions of the PID

Algorithm Offered on DCSs
(3) The form in which the proportional and
derivative terms are based on the process
measurement and the integral is based on the
error from setpoint.

t e(t )
y (t ) 2 y s (t t ) y s (t 2t )
c(t ) K c y s (t t ) y s (t )
D s

I
t

Laplace Transform for a PID

Controller

C ( s)
1
Gc ( s )
Kc 1
D s
E ( s)
Is

Example for a First Order

Process with a PI Controller
Kc 2

I 10

Kp 1

Characteristic Equation :

1
2
5s 1 2 10 s 1 0

Rearranging
25s 15s 1 0

p 5
1.5
2

p 5

Example of a PI Controller Applied

to a Second Order Process
K c 1; I 1; K p 1; p 5; 2
Characteristic Equation :

1
25s 2 20 s 1

Rearranging

1
1 s 1 0

25s 20s 2s 1 0
p1 0.764 and a second order
3

response with p 4.37 and 0.08

Filtering the Process

Measurement
y f (t ) f ys (t ) (1 f ) y f (t t )
Filtering reduces the effect of sensor noise by
approximating a running average.
Filtering adds lag when the filtered measurement is used
for control.
Normally, use the minimum amount of filtering
necessary.
f- filter factor (0-1)

Feedback Loop with Sensor

Filtering
D(s)

G d (s)

sp

(s)

+-

E(s)

Y f (s)

G c (s)

G f (s)

C(s)

G a (s)

Y s (s)

U(s)

G p (s)

G s (s)

++

Y(s)

Effect of Filtering on Closed

Loop Dynamics
Characteristic equation for P only controller
on first order process with sensor filtering :

Kp

Kc

p s 1

1
1 0
f s 1

p f

Kc K p 1

p f
2 p f ( K c K p 1)

Analysis of Example
f is equal to t (1/f-1) as f becomes small, f
becomes large.
When f is small compared to p, as f is
increased, will decrease.
When f is large compared to p, as f is
increased, will increase.
Critical issue is relative magnitude of f
compare to p.

Filtered Temperature

Effect of the Amount of Filtering

on the Open Loop Response

f=0.3

f=0.2

20

f=0.1

40
60
Time (seconds)

80

100

Effect of a Noisy Sensor on

Controlled Variable without Filtering
Product Temperature

Manipulated Variable

Time

Effect of a Noisy Sensor on

Controlled Variable with Filtering
Product Temperature

Manipulated Variable

Time

Temperature (C)

An Example of Too Much and

Too Little Filtering
104
f=0.01

102

f=0.2
f=0.5

100
0

50

100
150
Time (seconds)

200

Properties of Proportional Action

c(t ) c0 K c e(t )
Kc K p
Kc K p 1
Y (s)

p
Ysp ( s )
s 1
Kc K p 1

Closed loop transfer function

base on a P-only controller
applied to a first order process.
Properties of P control
Does not change order of process
Closed loop time constant is
smaller than open loop p
Does not eliminate offset.

Offset Resulting from P-only

Control
Offset

Setpoint
1.0
3
2
0

1
Time

Proportional Action for the

Response of a PI Controller
ysp
ys
cprop

Time

Properties of Integral Action

Kc
c(t ) c0
I

e(t ) dt

Based on applying an IY (s)

1

only controller to a first

I p 2

Ysp ( s )
order process
s I s 1
Kc K p
Kc K p
Properties of I control
I

I p
Kc K p

1
I
2 p Kc K p

Offset is eliminated
Increases the order by 1
As integral action is
increased, the process
becomes faster, but at the
expense of more sustained
oscillations

Integral Action for the Response

of a PI Controller
ysp

ys
cint

Time

Properties of Derivative Action

de(t )
c(t ) c0 K c D
dt
K c K p D s
Y (s)
2 2
Ysp ( s ) p s 2 p K c K p D s 1

Closed loop transfer function for derivative-only

control applied to a second order process.
Properties of derivative control:
Does not change the order of the process
Does not eliminate offset
Reduces the oscillatory nature of the
feedback response

Derivative Action for the

Response of a PID Controller
ysp

ys
cder

Time

PID Controller Design Issues

Over 90% of control loops use PI controller.
P-only: used for fast responding processes
that do not require offset free operation (e.g.,
certain level and pressure controllers)
PI: used for fast responding processes that
require offset free operation (e.g., certain
flow, level, pressure, temperature, and
composition controllers)

PID Controller Design Issues

PID: use for sluggish processes (i.e., a process with large
deadtime to time constant ratios) or processes that exhibit
severe ringing for PI controllers. PID controllers are applied
to certain temperature and composition control loops. Use
derivative action when:

p
1
p

Comparison between PI and PID

for a Low p/p Ratio
PI

PID
Time

Comparison between PI and PID

for a High p/p Ratio
PI

PID
Time

Analysis of Several Commonly

Encountered Control Loops

Flow control loops

Level control loops
Pressure control loops
Temperature control loops
Composition control loops

Flow Control Loop

FC

Flow
Setpoint

FT

Since the flow sensor and the process are so fast,

the dynamics of the flow control loop is controlled
by the dynamics of the control valve.
Almost always use PI controller.

Deadband of a Control Valve

Stem Position

Air Pressure
Time

Deadband of industrial valves is between 10%25%.

As a result, small changes in the air pressure
applied to the valve do not change the flow rate.

Flow Rate

Deadband of Flow Control Loop

20
40
Time (seconds)

60

A control valve (deadband of 10-25%) in a flow

control loop or with a positioner typically has a
deadband for the average flow rate of less than
0.5% due to the high frequency opening and closing
of the valve around the specified flow rate.

Level Control Loop

F
L

in

sp

F
LC

LT
FT

RSP

FC

out

Dynamics of the sensor

and actuator are fast
compared to the process.
If operators want control
to setpoint, use PI
controller with small
amount of integral
action, otherwise use Ponly controller.

Pressure Control Process

P

sp

PC
Vent
PT

C.W.

The process and the sensor are generally faster

than the actuator.
Use P-only controller unless offset elimination is
important then use a PI controller.

Temperature Control Loop

TT

TC

sp

RSP
Process
Stream

FC
FT
Gas

The dynamics of the

process and sensor are
usually slower than
the actuator.
Use a PI controller
unless the process is
sufficiently sluggish to
warrant a PID
controller.

Analysis of PI Controller Applied

to Typical Temperature Loop
I 30;

p 60;

v 20

1 Kp
1
Kc 1

1 0

30s 60s 1 20 s 1

K c Kp
p1
p

0.02
0.10

0.057
0.056

325
140

1.48
0.74

0.80
1.50

0.051
0.057

48
28

0.37
0.14

Further Analysis of Dynamic of a

Typical Temperature Control Loop
Note that as the controller gain is increased,
i.e., KcKp increase, the closed loop time
constant becomes smaller.
Also, note that as the controller gain is
increased, the value of decreases.

Composition Control Loop

C.W.

FT

AT

FC
RSP

AC

The process is usually

the slowest element
followed by the sensor
with the actuator being
the fastest.
Use a PI controller
unless the process is
sufficiently sluggish to
warrant a PID controller.

Overview
The characteristic equation determines the dynamic behavior
of a closed loop system
There are a number of different ways to apply a PID controller.
Proportional, integral, and derivative action each have unique
characteristics.
Use a PI controller unless offset is not important or if the
process is sluggish.
When analyzing the dynamics of a loop, consider the dynamics
of the actuator, the process, and the sensor separately.