1

Chapter 3 - Functions
Outline
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Program Components in C++
3.3 Math Library Functions
3.4 Functions
3.5 Function Definitions
3.6 Function Prototypes
3.7 Header Files
3.8 Random Number Generation
3.9 Example: A Game of Chance and Introducing enum
3.10 Storage Classes
3.11 Scope Rules
3.12 Recursion
3.13 Example Using Recursion: The Fibonacci Series
3.14 Recursion vs. Iteration
3.15 Functions with Empty Parameter Lists

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 2

Chapter 3 - Functions
Outline
3.16 Inline Functions
3.17 References and Reference
Parameters
3.18 Default Arguments
3.19 Unary Scope Resolution Operator
3.20 Function Overloading
3.21 Function Templates

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 3

3.1 Introduction

• Divide and conquer

– Construct a program from smaller pieces or components
– Each piece more manageable than the original program

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 4

3.3 Math Library Functions

• Math library functions
– Allow the programmer to perform common mathematical
calculations
– Are used by including the header file <cmath>
– Optimized, thoroughly tested
• Functions called by writing
functionName (argument)
• Example
cout << sqrt( 900.0 );
– Calls the sqrt (square root) function. The preceding statement
would print 30
– The sqrt function takes an argument of type double and
returns a result of type double, as do all functions in the math
library

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 5

3.3 Math Library Functions

• Function arguments can be

– Constants
• sqrt( 4 );
– Variables
• sqrt( x );
– Expressions
• sqrt( sqrt( x ) ) ;
• sqrt( 3 - 6x );

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 6
Method Desc ription Example
ceil( x ) rounds x to the smallest integer ceil( 9.2 ) is 10.0
not less than x ceil( -9.8 ) is -9.0
cos( x ) trigonometric cosine of x cos( 0.0 ) is 1.0
(x in radians)
exp( x ) exponential function ex exp( 1.0 ) is 2.71828
exp( 2.0 ) is 7.38906
fabs( x ) absolute value of x fabs( 5.1 ) is 5.1
fabs( 0.0 ) is 0.0
fabs( -8.76 ) is 8.76
floor( x ) rounds x to the largest integer floor( 9.2 ) is 9.0
not greater than x floor( -9.8 ) is -10.0
fmod( x, y ) remainder of x/y as a floating- fmod( 13.657, 2.333 ) is 1.992
point number
log( x ) natural logarithm of x (base e) log( 2.718282 ) is 1.0
log( 7.389056 ) is 2.0
log10( x ) logarithm of x (base 10) log10( 10.0 ) is 1.0
log10( 100.0 ) is 2.0
pow( x, y ) x raised to power y (xy) pow( 2, 7 ) is 128
pow( 9, .5 ) is 3
sin( x ) trigonometric sine of x sin( 0.0 ) is 0
(x in radians)
sqrt( x ) square root of x sqrt( 900.0 ) is 30.0
sqrt( 9.0 ) is 3.0
tan( x ) trigonometric tangent of x tan( 0.0 ) is 0
(x in radians)
Fig. 3.2 Math library func tions.
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 7

3.4 Functions

• Functions
– Modularize a program
– Software reusability
• Call function multiple times
• Local variables
– Known only in the function in which they are defined
– All variables declared in function definitions are local
variables
• Parameters
– Local variables passed to function when called
– Provide outside information

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 8

3.5 Function Definitions

• Create customized functions to
– Take in data
– Perform operations
– Return the result
• Format for function definition:
return­value­type  function­name( parameter­list )
{
   declarations and statements
}
• return keyword
– Returns data, and control goes to function’s caller
• If no data to return, use return;
– Function ends when reaches right brace
• Control goes to caller
• Functions cannot be defined inside other functions
• Next: program examples
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 9
1 // Fig. 3.3: fig03_03.cpp
2 // Creating and using a programmer-defined function.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4 Function prototype: specifies fig03_03.cpp
5 using std::cout; data types of arguments and (1 of 2)
6 using std::endl; return values. square
7
expects and int, and returns
8 int square( int ); // function prototype
an int.
9
10 int main()
11 { Parentheses () cause function
12 // loop 10 times and calculate and output
to be called. When done, it
13 // square of x each time
14 for ( int x = 1; x <= 10; x++ )
returns the result.
15 cout << square( x ) << " "; // function call
16
17 cout << endl;
18
19 return 0; // indicates successful termination
20
21 } // end main
22

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 10
23 // square function definition returns square of an integer
24 int square( int y ) // y is a copy of argument to function
Outline
25 {
26 return y * y; // returns square of y as an int
fig03_03.cpp
27
(2 of 2)
28 } // end function square
Definition of square. y is a
copy of the argument passed. fig03_03.cpp
1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100 Returns y * y, or y squared. output (1 of 1)

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 11

3.6 Function Prototypes

• Function prototype contains

– Function name
– Parameters (number and data type)
• Information the function takes in
– Return type
• information the function passes back to caller (default int)
• void signifies it returns nothing
– Only needed if function definition after function call
• Prototype must match function definition
– Function prototype
double maximum( double, double, double );
– Definition
double maximum( double x, double y, double z )
{
}

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 12

3.6 Function Prototypes

• Function signature
– Part of prototype with name and parameters
• double maximum( double, double, double );

Function signature
• Argument Coercion
– Force arguments to be of proper type
• Converting int (4) to double (4.0)
cout << sqrt(4)
– Conversion rules
• Arguments usually converted automatically
• int to double - no data loss
• Changing from double to int can truncate data
– 3.4 to 3
• Can only convert to a lower type by explicitly assigning value to a
variable of lower typing or by using a cast operator (did last week).

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 13

3.7 Header Files

• Header files
– Contain function prototypes for library functions
– <cstdlib> , <cmath>, etc.
– Load with #include <filename>
• Example:
#include <cmath>
• Custom header files
– Defined by the programmer
– Save as filename.h
– Loaded into program using
#include "filename.h"

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 14

3.8 Random Number Generation

• rand function (<cstdlib>)

– i = rand();
– Generates unsigned integer between 0 and RAND_MAX
(usually 32767)
• Scaling and shifting
– Modulus (remainder) operator: %
• 10 % 3 is 1
• x % y is between 0 and y – 1
– Example
i = rand() % 6 + 1;
• “Rand() % 6” generates a number between 0 and 5 (scaling)
• “+ 1” makes the range 1 to 6 (shift)
– Next: program to roll dice
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 15
1 // Fig. 3.7: fig03_07.cpp
2 // Shifted, scaled integers produced by 1 + rand() % 6.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig03_07.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 2)
6 using std::endl;
7
8 #include <iomanip>
9
10 using std::setw;
11
12 #include <cstdlib> // contains function prototype for rand
13
14 int main()
15 {
16 // loop 20 times
Output of rand() scaled and
17 for ( int counter = 1; counter <= 20; counter++ ) {
18
shifted to be a number
19 // pick random number from 1 to 6 and output itbetween 1 and 6.
20 cout << setw( 10 ) << ( 1 + rand() % 6 );
21
22 // if counter divisible by 5, begin new line of output
23 if ( counter % 5 == 0 )
24 cout << endl;
25
26 } // end for structure

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 16
27
28 return 0; // indicates successful termination
Outline
29
30 } // end main
fig03_07.cpp
6 6 5 5 6 (2 of 2)
5 1 1 5 3
6 6 2 4 2 fig03_07.cpp
6 2 3 4 1 output (1 of 1)

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 17

3.8 Random Number Generation

• Calling rand() repeatedly

– Gives the same sequence of numbers
• Pseudorandom numbers
– Preset sequence of "random" numbers
– Same sequence generated whenever program run
• To get different random sequences
– Provide a seed value
• Like a random starting point in the sequence
• The same seed will give the same sequence
– srand(seed);
• <cstdlib>
• Used before rand() to set the seed

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 18
1 // Fig. 3.9: fig03_09.cpp
2 // Randomizing die-rolling program.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig03_09.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 2)
6 using std::cin;
7 using std::endl;
8
9 #include <iomanip>
10
11 using std::setw;
12
13 // contains prototypes for functions srand and rand
14 #include <cstdlib>
15
16 // main function begins program execution
17 int main()
18 {
19 unsigned seed; Setting the seed with
20
srand().
21 cout << "Enter seed: ";
22 cin >> seed;
23 srand( seed ); // seed random number generator
24

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 19
25 // loop 10 times
26 for ( int counter = 1; counter <= 10; counter++ ) {
Outline
27
28 // pick random number from 1 to 6 and output it
fig03_09.cpp
29 cout << setw( 10 ) << ( 1 + rand() % 6 );
(2 of 2)
30
31 // if counter divisible by 5, begin new line of output
32 if ( counter % 5 == 0 ) fig03_09.cpp
33 cout << endl; output (1 of 1)
34
35 } // end for
36
37 return 0; // indicates successful termination
rand() gives the same
38
sequence if it has the same
39 } // end main
initial seed.
Enter seed: 67
6 1 4 6 2
1 6 1 6 4

Enter seed: 432

4 6 3 1 6
3 1 5 4 2

Enter seed: 67
6 1 4 6 2
1 6 1 6 4

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 20

3.8 Random Number Generation

• Can use the current time to set the seed

– No need to explicitly set seed every time
– srand( time( 0 ) );
– time( 0 );
• <ctime>
• Returns current time in seconds
• General shifting and scaling
– Number = shiftingValue + rand() % scalingFactor
– shiftingValue = first number in desired range
– scalingFactor = width of desired range

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 21
3.9 Example: Game of Chance and
Introducing enum
• Enumeration
– Set of integers with identifiers
enum typeName {constant1, constant2…};
– Constants start at 0 (default), incremented by 1
– Constants need unique names
– Cannot assign integer to enumeration variable
• Must use a previously defined enumeration type
• Example
enum Status {CONTINUE, WON, LOST};
Status enumVar;
enumVar = WON; // cannot do enumVar = 1

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 22
3.9 Example: Game of Chance and
Introducing enum
• Enumeration constants can have preset values
enum Months { JAN = 1, FEB, MAR, APR, MAY,
JUN, JUL, AUG, SEP, OCT, NOV, DEC};
– Starts at 1, increments by 1
• Next: craps simulator
– Roll two dice
– 7 or 11 on first throw: player wins
– 2, 3, or 12 on first throw: player loses
– 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10
• Value becomes player's "point"
• Player must roll his point before rolling 7 to win

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 23
1 // Fig. 3.10: fig03_10.cpp
2 // Craps.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig03_10.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 5)
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // contains function prototypes for functions srand and rand
9 #include <cstdlib>
10
Function to roll 2 dice and
11 #include <ctime> // contains return the
prototype result
for as an int.
function time
12
13 int rollDice( void ); // function prototype
14
Enumeration to keep track of
15 int main()
16 {
the current game.
17 // enumeration constants represent game status
18 enum Status { CONTINUE, WON, LOST };
19
20 int sum;
21 int myPoint;
22
23 Status gameStatus; // can contain CONTINUE, WON or LOST
24

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 24
25 // randomize random number generator using current time
26 srand( time( 0 ) );
Outline
27
28 sum = rollDice(); roll of statement
// first switch the dice
determines outcome based on fig03_10.cpp
29
(2 of 5)
30 // determine game status and die roll.based on sum of dice
point
31 switch ( sum ) {
32
33 // win on first roll
34 case 7:
35 case 11:
36 gameStatus = WON;
37 break;
38
39 // lose on first roll
40 case 2:
41 case 3:
42 case 12:
43 gameStatus = LOST;
44 break;
45

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 25
46 // remember point
47 default:
Outline
48 gameStatus = CONTINUE;
49 myPoint = sum;
fig03_10.cpp
50 cout << "Point is " << myPoint << endl;
(3 of 5)
51 break; // optional
52
53 } // end switch
54
55 // while game not complete ...
56 while ( gameStatus == CONTINUE ) {
57 sum = rollDice(); // roll dice again
58
59 // determine game status
60 if ( sum == myPoint ) // win by making point
61 gameStatus = WON;
62 else
63 if ( sum == 7 ) // lose by rolling 7
64 gameStatus = LOST;
65
66 } // end while
67

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 26
68 // display won or lost message
69 if ( gameStatus == WON )
Outline
70 cout << "Player wins" << endl;
71 else
fig03_10.cpp
72 cout << "Player loses" << endl;
(4 of 5)
73
74 return 0; // indicates successful termination
75
76 } // end main
Function rollDice takes no
77 arguments, so has void in
78 // roll dice, calculate sum and the parameter
display list.
results
79 int rollDice( void )
80 {
81 int die1;
82 int die2;
83 int workSum;
84
85 die1 = 1 + rand() % 6; // pick random die1 value
86 die2 = 1 + rand() % 6; // pick random die2 value
87 workSum = die1 + die2; // sum die1 and die2
88

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 27
89 // display results of this roll
90 cout << "Player rolled " << die1 << " + " << die2
Outline
91 << " = " << workSum << endl;
92
fig03_10.cpp
93 return workSum; // return sum of dice
(5 of 5)
94
95 } // end function rollDice

Player rolled 2 + 5 = 7 fig03_10.cpp

Player wins output (1 of 2)

Player rolled 6 + 6 = 12
Player loses

Player rolled 3 + 3 = 6
Point is 6
Player rolled 5 + 3 = 8
Player rolled 4 + 5 = 9
Player rolled 2 + 1 = 3
Player rolled 1 + 5 = 6
Player wins

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 28
Player rolled 1 + 3 = 4
Point is 4
Outline
Player rolled 4 + 6 = 10
Player rolled 2 + 4 = 6
fig03_10.cpp
Player rolled 6 + 4 = 10
output (2 of 2)
Player rolled 2 + 3 = 5
Player rolled 2 + 4 = 6
Player rolled 1 + 1 = 2
Player rolled 4 + 4 = 8
Player rolled 4 + 3 = 7
Player loses

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 29

3.10 Storage Classes

• Variables have attributes

– Have seen name, type, size, value
– Storage class
• How long variable exists in memory (lifetime)
• auto, register, extern, mutable and static
– Scope
• Where variable can be referenced in program
– Linkage
• For multiple-file program (see Ch. 6), which files can use the
variable

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 30

3.10 Storage Classes

• Automatic storage class (auto and register key words)

– Life time is block only, variable created when program enters its
block and destroyed when leaving block.
– Only local variables of functions can be automatic
• Automatic by default
– auto keyword explicitly declares automatic
• Example:
auto float x, y;
– register keyword
• Hint to place variable in high-speed register (compiler can ignore)
• Good for often-used items (loop counters)
• Often unnecessary, compiler optimizes
– Specify either register or auto, not both
• register int counter = 1;

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 31

3.10 Storage Classes

• Static storage class

– Lifetime of variable is entire program execution
• For functions, name exists for entire program
– May not be accessible, scope rules still apply (more later)
• static keyword
– Local variables in function
– Keeps value between function calls
– Only known in own function
• extern keyword
– Default for global variables/functions
• Globals: defined outside of a function block
– Known in any function that comes after it
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 32

3.11 Scope Rules

• Scope
– Portion of program where identifier can be used
• Global scope (in C++, extern enforces this for vars)
– Must be defined outside a function, known in all functions
– Variable is visible to any other file
– Examples include, global variables (when extern is applied to
them)
• File scope (in C++, static enforces this for vars)
– Defined outside a function, known in all functions
– Variable is not visible to any other file
– Examples include, global variables (when static is applied to
them), function definitions and functions prototypes
• Function scope
– Can only be referenced inside defining function
– Only labels, e.g., identifiers with a colon (case:)
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 33

3.11 Scope Rules

• Block scope
– Begins at declaration, ends at right brace }
• Can only be referenced in this range
– Outer blocks “hidden” from inner blocks if same variable name

– Local variables, function parameters

– static variables still have block scope
• Storage class separate from scope
• Function-prototype scope
– Parameter list of prototype
– Names in prototype optional
• Compiler ignores
– In a single prototype, name can be used once

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 34
1 // Fig. 3.12: fig03_12.cpp
2 // A scoping example.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig03_12.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 5)
6 using std::endl;
7
8 void useLocal( void ); // function prototype
9
Declared outside of function;
void useStaticLocal( void ); // function prototype
10 void useGlobal( void ); global variable with
// function file
prototype
11 scope.
12 int x = 1; // global variable
13 Local variable with function
14 int main() scope.
15 {
16 int x = 5; // local variable to main
17
18 cout << "local x in main's outer scope
Create is block,
a new " << xgiving
<< endl;
x
19
block scope. When the block
20 { // start new scope
ends, this x is destroyed.
21
22 int x = 7;
23
24 cout << "local x in main's inner scope is " << x << endl;
25
26 } // end new scope

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 35
27
28 cout << "local x in main's outer scope is " << x << endl;
Outline
29
30 useLocal(); // useLocal has local x
fig03_12.cpp
31 useStaticLocal(); // useStaticLocal has static local x
(2 of 5)
32 useGlobal(); // useGlobal uses global x
33 useLocal(); // useLocal reinitializes its local x
34 useStaticLocal(); // static local x retains its prior value
35 useGlobal(); // global x also retains its value
36
37 cout << "\nlocal x in main is " << x << endl;
38
39 return 0; // indicates successful termination
40
41 } // end main
42

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 36
43 // useLocal reinitializes local variable x during each call
44 void useLocal( void )
Outline
45 {
46 int x = 25; // initialized each time useLocal is called
fig03_12.cpp
47
(3 of 5)
48 cout << endl << "local x isAutomatic
" << x variable (local
49 << variable
" on entering useLocal" << of function). This
endl; is
50 ++x; destroyed when the function
51 cout << "local x is " << x exits, and reinitialized when
52 << the function
" on exiting useLocal" << endl;begins.
53
54 } // end function useLocal
55

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 37
56 // useStaticLocal initializes static local variable x only the
57 // first time the function is called; value of x is saved
Outline
58 // between calls to this function
59 void useStaticLocal( void )
fig03_12.cpp
60 {
(4 of 5)
61 // initialized only first time useStaticLocal is called
62 static int x = 50;
63
64 cout << endl << "local static x is " << x
65 << " on entering useStaticLocal" << endl;
66 ++x;
"local static x is " << Static
67 cout << x local variable of
68 << function;
" on exiting useStaticLocal" it is initialized
<< endl; only
69 once, and retains its value
70 } // end function useStaticLocal between function calls.
71

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 38
72 // useGlobal modifies global variable x during each call
73 void useGlobal( void )
Outline
74 {
75 cout << endl << "global x is " << x This function does not declarefig03_12.cpp
76 << " on entering useGlobal" << endl; any variables. It uses the (5 of 5)
77 x *= 10; global x declared in the
78 cout << "global x is " << x
beginning of the program. fig03_12.cpp
79 << " on exiting useGlobal" << endl;
80 output (1 of 2)
81 } // end function useGlobal

local x in main's outer scope is 5

local x in main's inner scope is 7
local x in main's outer scope is 5

local x is 25 on entering useLocal

local x is 26 on exiting useLocal

local static x is 50 on entering useStaticLocal

local static x is 51 on exiting useStaticLocal

global x is 1 on entering useGlobal

global x is 10 on exiting useGlobal

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 39
local x is 25 on entering useLocal
Outline
local x is 26 on exiting useLocal

fig03_12.cpp
local static x is 51 on entering useStaticLocal
output (2 of 2)
local static x is 52 on exiting useStaticLocal

global x is 10 on entering useGlobal

global x is 100 on exiting useGlobal

local x in main is 5

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 40
3.15 Functions with Empty Parameter
Lists
• Empty parameter lists
– void or leave parameter list empty
– Indicates function takes no arguments
– Function print takes no arguments and returns no value
• void print();
• void print( void );

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 41
1 // Fig. 3.18: fig03_18.cpp
2 // Functions that take no arguments.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig03_18.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 2)
6 using std::endl;
7
8 void function1(); // function prototype
9 void function2( void ); // function prototype
10
11 int main()
12 {
13 function1(); // call function1 with no arguments
14 function2(); // call function2 with no arguments
15
16 return 0; // indicates successful termination
17
18 } // end main
19

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 42
20 // function1 uses an empty parameter list to specify that
21 // the function receives no arguments
Outline
22 void function1()
23 {
fig03_18.cpp
24 cout << "function1 takes no arguments" << endl;
(2 of 2)
25
26 } // end function1
27 fig03_18.cpp
28 // function2 uses a void parameter list to specify that output (1 of 1)
29 // the function receives no arguments
30 void function2( void )
31 {
32 cout << "function2 also takes no arguments" << endl;
33
34 } // end function2

function1 takes no arguments

function2 also takes no arguments

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 43

3.16 Inline Functions

• Inline functions
– Keyword inline before function
– Asks the compiler to copy code into program instead of
making function call
• Reduce function-call overhead
• Compiler can ignore inline
– Good for small, often-used functions
• Example
inline double cube( const double s )
{ return s * s * s; }
– const tells compiler that function does not modify s
• Discussed in chapters 6-7

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 44
1 // Fig. 3.19: fig03_19.cpp
2 // Using an inline function to calculate.
Outline
3 // the volume of a cube.
4 #include <iostream>
fig03_19.cpp
5
(1 of 2)
6 using std::cout;
7 using std::cin;
8 using std::endl;
9
10 // Definition of inline function cube. Definition of function
11 // appears before function is called, so a function prototype
12 // is not required. First line of function definition acts as
13 // the prototype.
14 inline double cube( const double side )
15 {
16 return side * side * side; // calculate cube
17
18 } // end function cube
19

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 45
20 int main()
21 {
Outline
22 cout << "Enter the side length of your cube: ";
23
fig03_19.cpp
24 double sideValue;
(2 of 2)
25
26 cin >> sideValue;
27 fig03_19.cpp
28 // calculate cube of sideValue and display result output (1 of 1)
29 cout << "Volume of cube with side "
30 << sideValue << " is " << cube( sideValue ) << endl;
31
32 return 0; // indicates successful termination
33
34 } // end main

Enter the side length of your cube: 3.5

Volume of cube with side 3.5 is 42.875

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 46
3.17 References and Reference
Parameters
• Call by value
– Copy of data passed to function
– Changes to copy do not change original
– Prevent unwanted side effects
• Call by reference
– Function can directly access data
– Changes affect original

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 47
3.17 References and Reference
Parameters
• Reference parameter
– Alias for argument in function call
• Passes parameter by reference
– Use & after data type in prototype
• void change( int &variable )
{
variable += 3;
}
• Read “variable is a reference to an int”
• Adds three to the variable that is input
– Function call format the same
• However, original can now be changed

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 48
1 // Fig. 3.20: fig03_20.cpp
2 // Comparing pass-by-value and pass-by-reference
Outline
3 // with references.
4 #include <iostream>
fig03_20.cpp
5
(1 of 2)
6 using std::cout;
Notice the & operator,
7 using std::endl;
8
indicating pass-by-reference.
9 int squareByValue( int ); // function prototype
10 void squareByReference( int & ); // function prototype
11
12 int main()
13 {
14 int x = 2;
15 int z = 4;
16
17 // demonstrate squareByValue
18 cout << "x = " << x << " before squareByValue\n";
19 cout << "Value returned by squareByValue: "
20 << squareByValue( x ) << endl;
21 cout << "x = " << x << " after squareByValue\n" << endl;
22

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 49
23 // demonstrate squareByReference
24 cout << "z = " << z << " before squareByReference" << endl;
Outline
25 squareByReference( z );
26 cout << "z = " << z << " after squareByReference" << endl;
fig03_20.cpp
27
(2 of 2)
28 return 0; // indicates successful termination
29 } // end main
Changes number, but
30
31 //
original parameter (x) is not
squareByValue multiplies number by itself, stores the
32 // modified.
result in number and returns the new value of number
33 int squareByValue( int number )
34 {
35 return number *= number; // caller's argument not modified
36
37 } // end function squareByValue
38 Changes numberRef, an
39 // squareByReference multiplies numberRef by itself
alias and
for the original
40 // stores the result in the variable to which numberRef
parameter. Thus, z is
41 // refers in function main
changed.
42 void squareByReference( int &numberRef )
43 {
44 numberRef *= numberRef; // caller's argument modified
45
46 } // end function squareByReference

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 50
x = 2 before squareByValue
Value returned by squareByValue: 4
Outline
x = 2 after squareByValue

fig03_20.cpp
z = 4 before squareByReference
output (1 of 1)
z = 16 after squareByReference

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 51
3.17 References and Reference
Parameters
• Pointers (chapter 5)
– Another way to pass-by-refernce
• References as aliases to other variables
– Refer to same variable
– Can be used within a function
int count = 1; // declare integer variable count
int &cRef = count; // create cRef as an alias for count
++cRef; // increment count (using its alias)

• References must be initialized when declared

– Otherwise, compiler error
– Dangling reference
• Reference to undefined variable

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 52
1 // Fig. 3.21: fig03_21.cpp
2 // References must be initialized.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig03_21.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 1)
6 using std::endl;
7
8 int main() fig03_21.cpp
9 { output (1 of 1)
10 int x = 3; y declared as a reference to x.
11
12 // y refers to (is an alias for) x
13 int &y = x;
14
15 cout << "x = " << x << endl << "y = " << y << endl;
16 y = 7;
17 cout << "x = " << x << endl << "y = " << y << endl;
18
19 return 0; // indicates successful termination
20
21 } // end main

x = 3
y = 3
x = 7
y = 7

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 53
1 // Fig. 3.22: fig03_22.cpp
2 // References must be initialized.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig03_22.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 1)
6 using std::endl;
7
8 int main() Uninitialized reference – fig03_22.cpp
9 { compiler error. output (1 of 1)
10 int x = 3;
11 int &y; // Error: y must be initialized
12
13 cout << "x = " << x << endl << "y = " << y << endl;
14 y = 7;
15 cout << "x = " << x << endl << "y = " << y << endl;
16
17 return 0; // indicates successful termination
18
19 } // end main

Borland C++ command-line compiler error message:

Error E2304 Fig03_22.cpp 11: Reference variable 'y' must be
initialized­ in function main()

Microsoft Visual C++ compiler error message:

D:\cpphtp4_examples\ch03\Fig03_22.cpp(11) : error C2530: 'y' :
references must be initialized

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 54

3.18 Default Arguments

• Function call with omitted parameters

– If not enough parameters, rightmost go to their defaults
– Default values
• Can be constants, global variables, or function calls
• Set defaults in function prototype
int myFunction( int x = 1, int y = 2, int z = 3 );
– myFunction(3)
• x = 3, y and z get defaults (rightmost)
– myFunction(3, 5)
• x = 3, y = 5 and z gets default

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 55
1 // Fig. 3.23: fig03_23.cpp
2 // Using default arguments.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
Set defaults in function fig03_23.cpp
6 using std::endl;
7
prototype. (1 of 2)
8 // function prototype that specifies default arguments
9 int boxVolume( int length = 1, int width = 1, int height = 1 );
10
11 int main()
12 {
13 // no arguments--use default values for all dimensions Function calls with some
14 cout << "The default box volume is: " << boxVolume(); parameters missing – the
15 rightmost parameters get their
16 // specify length; default width and height defaults.
17 cout << "\n\nThe volume of a box with length 10,\n"
18 << "width 1 and height 1 is: " << boxVolume( 10 );
19
20 // specify length and width; default height
21 cout << "\n\nThe volume of a box with length 10,\n"
22 << "width 5 and height 1 is: " << boxVolume( 10, 5 );
23

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 56
24 // specify all arguments
25 cout << "\n\nThe volume of a box with length 10,\n"
Outline
26 << "width 5 and height 2 is: " << boxVolume( 10, 5, 2 )
27 << endl;
fig03_23.cpp
28
(2 of 2)
29 return 0; // indicates successful termination
30
31 } // end main fig03_23.cpp
32 output (1 of 1)
33 // function boxVolume calculates the volume of a box
34 int boxVolume( int length, int width, int height )
35 {
36 return length * width * height;
37
38 } // end function boxVolume

The default box volume is: 1

The volume of a box with length 10,

width 1 and height 1 is: 10

The volume of a box with length 10,

width 5 and height 1 is: 50

The volume of a box with length 10,

width 5 and height 2 is: 100

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 57
3.19 Unitary Scope Resolution
Operator
• Unary scope resolution operator (::)
– Access global variable if local variable has same name
– Not needed if names are different
– Use ::variable
• y = ::x + 3;
– Good to avoid using same names for locals and globals

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 58

3.20 Function Overloading

• Function overloading
– Functions with same name and different parameters
– Should perform similar tasks
• I.e., function to square ints and function to square floats
int square( int x) {return x * x;}
float square(float x) { return x * x; }

• Overloaded functions distinguished by signature

– Based on name and parameter types (order matters)
– Name mangling
• Encodes function identifier with parameters
– Type-safe linkage
• Ensures proper overloaded function called

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 59
1 // Fig. 3.25: fig03_25.cpp
2 // Using overloaded functions.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig03_25.cpp
5 using std::cout;
Overloaded functions have (1 of 2)
6 using std::endl;
7
the same name, but the
8 // function square for int values different parameters
9 int square( int x ) distinguish them.
10 {
11 cout << "Called square with int argument: " << x << endl;
12 return x * x;
13
14 } // end int version of function square
15
16 // function square for double values
17 double square( double y )
18 {
19 cout << "Called square with double argument: " << y << endl;
20 return y * y;
21
22 } // end double version of function square
23

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 60
24 int main()
25 {
Outline
26 int intResult = square( 7 ); // calls int version
27 double doubleResult = square( 7.5 ); // calls double version
fig03_25.cpp
28
(2 of 2)
29 cout << "\nThe square of integer 7 is " << intResult
The proper function is called
30 << "\nThe square of double 7.5 is " << doubleResult
31 << endl;
based upon the argument fig03_25.cpp
32 (int or double). output (1 of 1)
33 return 0; // indicates successful termination
34
35 } // end main

Called square with int argument: 7

Called square with double argument: 7.5

The square of integer 7 is 49

The square of double 7.5 is 56.25

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 61

3.21 Function Templates

• Compact way to make overloaded functions

– Generate separate function for different data types
• Format
– Begin with keyword template
– Formal type parameters in brackets <>
• Every type parameter preceded by typename or class
(synonyms)
• Placeholders for built-in types (i.e., int) or user-defined types
• Specify arguments types, return types, declare variables
– Function definition like normal, except formal types used

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 62

3.21 Function Templates

• Example
template < class T > // or template< typename T >
T square( T value1 )
{
return value1 * value1;
}
– T is a formal type, used as parameter type
• Above function returns variable of same type as parameter
– In function call, T replaced by real type
• If int, all T's become ints
int x;
int y = square(x);

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 63
1 // Fig. 3.27: fig03_27.cpp
2 // Using a function template.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig03_27.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 3)
6 using std::cin;
Formal type parameter T
7 using std::endl;
8
placeholder for type of data to
9 // definition of function be maximum
template tested by maximum.
10 template < class T > // or template < typename T >
11 T maximum( T value1, T value2, T value3 )
12 {
13 T max = value1;
14 maximum expects all
15 if ( value2 > max ) parameters to be of the same
16 max = value2; type.
17
18 if ( value3 > max )
19 max = value3;
20
21 return max;
22
23 } // end function template maximum
24

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 64
25 int main()
26 {
Outline
27 // demonstrate maximum with int values
28 int int1, int2, int3;
fig03_27.cpp
29
(2 of 3)
30 cout << "Input three integer values: ";
31 cin >> int1 >> int2 >> int3; maximum called with various
32 data types.
33 // invoke int version of maximum
34 cout << "The maximum integer value is: "
35 << maximum( int1, int2, int3 );
36
37 // demonstrate maximum with double values
38 double double1, double2, double3;
39
40 cout << "\n\nInput three double values: ";
41 cin >> double1 >> double2 >> double3;
42
43 // invoke double version of maximum
44 cout << "The maximum double value is: "
45 << maximum( double1, double2, double3 );
46

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 65
47 // demonstrate maximum with char values
48 char char1, char2, char3;
Outline
49
50 cout << "\n\nInput three characters: ";
fig03_27.cpp
51 cin >> char1 >> char2 >> char3;
(3 of 3)
52
53 // invoke char version of maximum
54 cout << "The maximum character value is: " fig03_27.cpp
55 << maximum( char1, char2, char3 ) output (1 of 1)
56 << endl;
57
58 return 0; // indicates successful termination
59
60 } // end main

Input three integer values: 1 2 3

The maximum integer value is: 3

Input three double values: 3.3 2.2 1.1

The maximum double value is: 3.3

Input three characters: A C B

The maximum character value is: C

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