Course Outcomes

CO1:
Ability to analyze the Mechanical properties of materials such as tensile,
compressive, shear stresses & strains, and torsional deformation.

CO2:
Ability to examine the pressure variation in a static fluid, and also the resulting
hydrostatic forces on plane and curved submerged surfaces. In addition Energy
equation for fluid flow problems will also be studied.

CO3:
Ability to analyze basic concepts of thermodynamics in first and second law of
thermodynamic problems

ENT 153 Sem 2 2010/2011

1

Fundamentals of Thermal-Fluid Sciences, 3rd Edition

Yunus A. Cengel, Robert H. Turner, John M. Cimbala
McGraw-Hill, 2008

Chapter 4
PROPERTIES OF PURE
SUBSTANCES
Mehmet Kanoglu
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Objectives
Introduce the concept of a pure substance.
Discuss the physics of phase-change processes.
Illustrate the P-v, T-v, and P-T property diagrams and P-v-T
surfaces of pure substances.
Demonstrate the procedures for determining thermodynamic
properties of pure substances from tables of property data.
Describe the hypothetical substance ideal gas and the
ideal-gas equation of state.
Apply the ideal-gas equation of state in the solution of typical
problems.
Introduce the compressibility factor, which accounts for the
deviation of real gases from ideal-gas behavior.
Present some of the best-known equations of state.
3

PURE SUBSTANCE
Pure substance: A substance that has a fixed chemical
composition throughout.
Air is a mixture of several gases, but it is considered to be a pure
substance.

Nitrogen and gaseous air are

pure substances.

A mixture of liquid and gaseous

water is a pure substance, but a
mixture of liquid and gaseous air
is not.
4

PHASES OF A PURE SUBSTANCE

The molecules
in a solid are
kept at their
positions by the
large springlike
inter-molecular
forces.

In a solid, the attractive

and repulsive forces
between the molecules
tend to maintain them
at relatively constant
distances from each
other.

The arrangement of atoms in different phases: (a) molecules are at relatively fixed
positions in a solid, (b) groups of molecules move about each other in the liquid
phase, and (c) molecules move about at random in the gas phase.
5

PHASE-CHANGE PROCESSES OF PURE

SUBSTANCES

Compressed liquid (subcooled liquid): A substance that it is

not about to vaporize.
Saturated liquid: A liquid that is about to vaporize.
At 1 atm and 20C,
water exists in the
liquid phase
(compressed
liquid).
At 1 atm pressure
and 100C, water
exists as a liquid
that is ready to
vaporize
(saturated liquid).
6

What is Saturated??

Holding as much water or moisture as can be absorbed; thoroughly

soaked.

Chemistry (of a solution) containing the largest possible amount of a

particular solute.

What is Condensation?

Be changed from a gas or vapor to a

liquid : the moisture vapor in the air
condenses into droplets of water.

Cause (a gas or vapor) to be

changed to a liquid : the cold air was
condensing his breath.
7

 Saturated vapor: A vapor that is about to condense.

Saturated liquidvapor mixture: The state at which the liquid and vapor
phases coexist in equilibrium.
Superheated vapor: A vapor that is not about to condense (i.e., not a
saturated vapor).

At 1 atm pressure, the

As more heat is transferred,
temperature remains
part of the saturated liquid
constant at 100C until the
vaporizes (saturated liquid
last drop of liquid is vaporized
vapor mixture).
(saturated vapor).

As more heat is
transferred, the
temperature of the
vapor starts to rise
(superheated vapor).
8

If the entire process between state 1 and 5 described in the figure is

reversed by cooling the water while maintaining the pressure at the
same value, the water will go back to state 1, retracing the same path,
and in so doing, the amount of heat released will exactly match the
amount of heat added during the heating process.
1

At 1 atm and 20C, water exists in the

liquid phase (compressed liquid).

At 1 atm pressure and 100C, water exists

2 as a liquid that is ready to vaporize
(saturated liquid).
As more heat is transferred, part of the
3 saturated liquid vaporizes (saturated
liquidvapor mixture).
At 1 atm pressure, the temperature
remains constant at 100C until the last
4 drop of liquid is vaporized (saturated
vapor).

Constant pressure line

T-v diagram for the heating process of water at constant

pressure.

As more heat is transferred, the

5 temperature of the vapor starts to rise
(superheated vapor).

Saturation Temperature and Saturation Pressure

The temperature at which water starts boiling depends on the pressure;

therefore, if the pressure is fixed, so is the boiling temperature.
Water boils at 100C at 1 atm pressure.
Saturation temperature Tsat: The temperature at which a pure substance
changes phase at a given pressure.
Saturation pressure Psat: The pressure at which a pure substance changes
phase at a given temperature.

The liquid
vapor
saturation
curve of a
pure
substance
(numerical
values are for
water).

10

Latent heat: The amount of energy

absorbed or released during a phasechange process.

Latent heat of fusion: The amount of

energy absorbed during melting. It is
equivalent to the amount of energy
released during freezing.

Latent heat of vaporization: The amount

of energy absorbed during vaporization
and it is equivalent to the energy released
during condensation.

The magnitudes of the latent heats

depend on the temperature or pressure at
which the phase change occurs.

At 1 atm pressure, the latent heat of fusion

of water is 333.7 kJ/kg and the latent heat
of vaporization is 2256.5 kJ/kg.

The atmospheric pressure, and thus the

boiling temperature of water, decreases
with elevation.
11

Some Consequences of
Tsat and Psat Dependence
The variation of
the temperature
of fruits and
vegetables with
pressure during
vacuum cooling
from 25C to 0C.

The temperature of liquid

nitrogen exposed to the
atmosphere remains
constant at 196C, and
thus it maintains the test
chamber at 196C.

In 1775, ice was

made by
evacuating the air
space in a water
tank.

12

PROPERTY DIAGRAMS FOR PHASECHANGE PROCESSES

The variations of properties during phase-change processes are best

studied and understood with the help of property diagrams such as
the T-v, P-v, and P-T diagrams for pure substances.

T-v diagram of
constant-pressure
phase-change
processes of a pure
substance at various
pressures
(numerical values
are for water).

13

saturated liquid line

saturated vapor line

compressed liquid region

superheated vapor region

saturated liquidvapor
mixture region (wet region)

T-v diagram of a pure substance.

At supercritical
pressures (P > Pcr),
there is no distinct
phase-change
(boiling) process.

Critical point: The point

at which the saturated
liquid and saturated vapor
states are identical.

14

P-v diagram of a pure substance.

The pressure in a pistoncylinder

device can be reduced by
reducing the weight of the piston.
15

Extending the
Diagrams to Include
the Solid Phase

For water,
Ttp = 0.01C
Ptp = 0.6117 kPa
At triple-point pressure
and temperature, a
substance exists in three
phases in equilibrium.

P-v diagram of a substance that

contracts on freezing.
P-v diagram of a substance that
expands on freezing (such as water).

16

Sublimation: Passing from

the solid phase directly into
the vapor phase.

Phase Diagram

At low pressures (below

the triple-point value),
P-T diagram of pure substances.
solids evaporate without
melting first (sublimation).
17

The P-v-T surfaces present a great deal of information at once, but in a

thermodynamic analysis it is more convenient to work with two-dimensional
diagrams, such as the P-v and T-v diagrams.

P-v-T surface of a substance

that contracts on freezing.

P-v-T surface of a substance that

expands on freezing (like water).
18

PROPERTY TABLES

For most substances, the relationships among thermodynamic properties are too
complex to be expressed by simple equations.
Therefore, properties are frequently presented in the form of tables.
Some thermodynamic properties can be measured easily, but others cannot and
are calculated by using the relations between them and measurable properties.
The results of these measurements and calculations are presented in tables in a
convenient format.

EnthalpyA Combination Property

The
combination
u + Pv is
frequently
encountered
in the analysis
The product pressure
of control
volume has energy units.
volumes.
19

Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor States

Table A4: Saturation properties of water under temperature.
Table A5: Saturation properties of water under pressure.
A partial list of Table A4.

Enthalpy of vaporization, hfg (Latent

heat of vaporization): The amount of
energy needed to vaporize a unit mass
of saturated liquid at a given
temperature or pressure.

20

Examples:
Saturated liquid
and saturated
vapor states of
water on T-v and
P-v diagrams.

Page 128 Cengel

Text book

21

Saturated LiquidVapor Mixture

Quality, x : The ratio of the mass of vapor to the total mass of the mixture.
Quality is between 0 and 1
0: sat. liquid, 1: sat. vapor.
The properties of the saturated liquid are the same whether it exists alone or in
a mixture with saturated vapor.
Temperature and
During vaporization, a substance exist a part liquid and part vapor.
pressure are dependent
properties for a mixture.

The relative
amounts of
liquid and
vapor phases
in a saturated
mixture are
specified by
the quality x.

A two-phase system can be

treated as a homogeneous
mixture for convenience.

22

v, u, or h.

Quality is related
to the horizontal
distances on P-v
and T-v
diagrams.
The v value of a
saturated liquid
vapor mixture lies
between the vf and vg
values at the
specified T or P.

23

Example 4-4 and 4-5 page 131 Cengel

Examples: Saturated liquid-vapor

mixture states on T-v and P-v diagrams.

24

In the region to the right of the

saturated vapor line and at
temperatures above the critical
point temperature, a substance
exists as superheated vapor.
In this region, temperature and
pressure are independent
properties.

Superheated Vapor
Compared to saturated vapor,
superheated vapor is characterized by

At a specified
P, superheated
vapor exists at
a higher h than
the saturated
vapor.
A partial
listing of
Table A6.

25

Refrigeration cycle
. In the following example, we will assume that the
refrigerant being used is pure ammonia, which boils at
-27 degrees F. This is what happens to keep the
refrigerator cool:
1. The compressor compresses the ammonia gas.
The compressed gas heats up as it is pressurized
(orange).
2. The coils on the back of the refrigerator let the hot
ammonia gas dissipate its heat. The ammonia gas
condenses into ammonia liquid (dark blue) at high
pressure.
3. The high-pressure ammonia liquid flows through
the expansion valve.
You can think of the expansion valve as a small
hole. On one side of the hole is high-pressure ammonia
liquid. On the other side of the hole is a low-pressure
area (because the compressor is sucking gas out of
that side).
4. The liquid ammonia immediately boils and
vaporizes (light blue), its temperature dropping to -27 F.
This makes the inside of the refrigerator cold.
5. The cold ammonia gas is sucked up by the
compressor, and the cycle repeats.

26

The compressed liquid properties

depend on temperature much more
strongly than they do on pressure.

Compressed Liquid
Compressed liquid is characterized by

y v, u, or h
A more accurate relation for h

A compressed liquid
may be approximated
as a saturated liquid at
the given temperature.

At a given P
and T, a pure
substance will
exist as a
compressed
liquid if

Treat compressed liquid as saturated liquid

at the given temp in the absence of
compressed liquid data

27

Reference State and Reference Values

The values of u, h, and s cannot be measured directly, and they are calculated from
measurable properties using the relations between properties.
However, those relations give the changes in properties, not the values of properties at
specified states.
Therefore, we need to choose a convenient reference state and assign a value of zero for
a convenient property or properties at that state.
The referance state for water is 0.01C and for R-134a is -40C in tables.
Some properties may have negative values as a result of the reference state chosen.
Sometimes different tables list different values for some properties at the same state as a
result of using a different reference state.
However, In thermodynamics we are concerned with the changes in properties, and the
reference state chosen is of no consequence in calculations.

28

THE IDEAL-GAS EQUATION OF STATE

Equation of state: Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature,

and specific volume of a substance.
The simplest and best-known equation of state for substances in the gas
phase is the ideal-gas equation of state. This equation predicts the P-v-T
behavior of a gas quite accurately within some properly selected region.

Ideal gas equation

of state

R: gas constant
M: molar mass (kg/kmol)
Ru: universal gas constant

Different substances have different

gas constants.

29

Mass = Molar mass Mole number

Ideal gas equation at two

states for a fixed mass

Various
expressions
of ideal gas
equation

Real gases
behave as an ideal
gas at low
densities (i.e., low
pressure, high
temperature).

The ideal-gas
relation often is not
applicable to real
gases; thus, care
should be exercised
when using it.
Properties per
unit mole are
denoted with a
bar on the top.

30

Is Water Vapor an Ideal Gas?

At pressures below 10 kPa, water

vapor can be treated as an ideal
gas, regardless of its temperature,
with negligible error (less than 0.1
percent).

At higher pressures, however, the

ideal gas assumption yields
unacceptable errors, particularly in
the vicinity of the critical point and
the saturated vapor line.

In air-conditioning applications, the

water vapor in the air can be
treated as an ideal gas. Why?

In steam power plant applications,

however, the pressures involved
are usually very high; therefore,
ideal-gas relations should not be
used.

Percentage of error ([|vtable - videal|/vtable] 100) involved in assuming

steam to be an ideal gas, and the region where steam can be
treated as an ideal gas with less than 1 percent error.

31

COMPRESSIBILITY FACTORA MEASURE

OF DEVIATION FROM IDEAL-GAS BEHAVIOR

Compressibility factor Z
A factor that accounts for
the deviation of real gases
from ideal-gas behavior at
a given temperature and
pressure.

The compressibility factor is

unity for ideal gases.

The farther away Z is from unity, the more the

gas deviates from ideal-gas behavior.
Gases behave as an ideal gas at low densities
(i.e., low pressure, high temperature).
Question: What is the criteria for low pressure
and high temperature?
Answer: The pressure or temperature of a gas
is high or low relative to its critical temperature
or pressure.

At very low pressures, all gases approach

ideal-gas behavior (regardless of their
temperature).

32

Reduced
pressure

Reduced
temperature
Pseudo-reduced
specific volume

Comparison of Z factors for various gases.

Z can also be determined from

a knowledge of PR and vR.

Gases deviate from the

ideal-gas behavior the
most in the neighborhood
of the critical point.
33

OTHER EQUATIONS
OF STATE
Several equations have been proposed to
represent the P-v-T behavior of substances
accurately over a larger region with no
limitations.

Van der Waals

Equation of State

Critical isotherm
of a pure
substance has
an inflection
point at the
critical state.

This model includes two effects not considered

in the ideal-gas model: the intermolecular
attraction forces and the volume occupied by the
molecules themselves. The accuracy of the van
der Waals equation of state is often inadequate.

34

Beattie-Bridgeman Equation of State

The constants are given in
Table 34 for various
substances. It is known to be
reasonably accurate for
densities up to about 0.8cr.

Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation of State

The constants are given in Table 34. This equation can handle substances
at densities up to about 2.5 cr.

Virial Equation of State

The coefficients a(T), b(T), c(T), and so on, that are

functions of temperature alone are called virial coefficients.
35

Percentage of error involved in various equations of

state for nitrogen
(% error = [(|vtable - vequation|)/vtable] 100).

Complex equations of
state represent the P-vT behavior of gases
more accurately over a
wider range.

36

Summary

Pure substance
Phases of a pure substance
Phase-change processes of pure substances
Compressed liquid, Saturated liquid, Saturated vapor, Superheated vapor
Saturation temperature and Saturation pressure

Property diagrams for phase change processes

The T-v diagram, The P-v diagram, The P-T diagram, The P-v-T surface

Property tables
Enthalpy
Saturated liquid, saturated vapor, Saturated liquid vapor mixture,
Superheated vapor, compressed liquid
Reference state and reference values

The ideal gas equation of state

Is water vapor an ideal gas?

Compressibility factor
Other equations of state
37