INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMNT METHOD

1. INTRODUCTION:
. The finite element method is a numerical method for solving problems of engineering and
mathematical physics.
Typical problem areas of interest:
. Structural analysis, heat transfer, fluid flow, mass transport, and Electromagnetic
potential
. Useful for problems with complicated geometries, loadings, and material properties where
analytical solutions can not be obtained.
. The finite element formulation of the problem results in a system of simultaneous
algebraic equations for solution, rather than requiring the solution of differential equations.
. Process of modeling a body by dividing it into an equivalent system of smaller bodies or
units (finite elements) interconnected at points common to two or more elements (nodal
points or nodes) and/or boundary lines and/or surfaces is called discretization.
. The solution for structural problems typically refers to determining the displacements at
each node and the stresses within each element making up the structure that is subjected
to applied loads.
. In nonstructural problems, the nodal unknowns may, for instance, be temperatures or
fluid pressures due to thermal or fluid fluxes.

Contd
Brief History:

Grew out of aerospace industry

Post-WW II jets, missiles, space flight
Need for light weight structures
Required accurate stress analysis
Paralleled growth of computers

Common FEA Applications

Mechanical/Aerospace/Civil/Automotive
Engineering
Structural/Stress Analysis
Static/Dynamic
Linear/Nonlinear
Fluid Flow
Heat Transfer
Electromagnetic Fields
Soil Mechanics
Acoustics
Biomechanics

General Steps In Finite Element method Analysis:

There are two general direct approaches traditionally associated with the finite element
method as applied to structural mechanics problems.
One approach, called the force, or flexibility, method, uses internal forces as the
unknowns of the problem.
The second approach, called the displacement, or stiffness, method, assumes the
displacements of the nodes as the unknowns of the problem.
For computational purposes, the displacement (or stiffness) method is more desirable
because its formulation is simpler for most structural analysis problems.

1. Discretization:
The first step involves dividing the body into an equivalent system of finite elements with
associated nodes and choosing the most appropriate element type to model most closely the
actual physical behavior.
Model body by dividing it into an equivalent system of many smaller bodies or units (finite
elements) interconnected at points common to two or more elements (nodes or nodal
points) and/or boundary lines and/or surfaces.

Contd

Feature

Obtain a set of algebraic equations to solve for unknown (first) nodal quantity
(displacement).
Secondary quantities (stresses and strains) are expressed in terms of nodal values of
primary quantity.

Types of Elements:

The primary line elements consist of bar (or truss) and beam elements (1D). They have a
cross-sectional area but are usually represented by line segments. In general, the crosssectional area within the element can vary, but it will be considered to be constant for the
sake of this section.
These elements are often used to model trusses and frame structures. The simplest line
element (called a linear element) has two nodes, one at each end.
The basic two-dimensional (or plane) elements are loaded by forces in their own plane
(plane stress or plane strain conditions). They are triangular or quadrilateral elements.
The simplest two-dimensional elements have corner nodes only (linear elements) with
straight sides or boundaries The elements can have variable thicknesses throughout or be
constant.
The most common three-dimensional elements are tetrahedral and hexahedral (or
brick) elements; they are used when it becomes necessary to perform a threedimensional stress analysis. The basic three-dimensional elements have corner nodes
only and straight sides.

FEM FORMULATION PROCEDURE:

Principles of FEA:
The finite element method (FEM), or finite element analysis
(FEA), is a Computational technique used to obtain approximate
solutions of boundary value problems in engineering.
Boundary value problems are also called field problems. The field
is the domain of interest and most often represents a physical
structure.
The field variables are the dependent variables of interest governed
by the differential equation.
The boundary conditions are the specified values of the field
variables (or related variables such as derivatives) on the
boundaries of the field.
For simplicity, at this point, we assume a two-dimensional case
with a single field variable (x, y) to be determined at every point
P(x, y) such that a known governing equation (or equations) is
satisfied exactly at every such point.

A finite element is not a differential element of size dx dy.

A node is a specific point in the finite element at which the value of the field variable is
to be explicitly calculated.

The Mathematical and Physical FEM

Mathematical FEM:
The centerpiece in the process steps of the Mathematical FEM is the
mathematical model which is often an ordinary or partial differential equation in
space and time.
A discrete finite element model is generated from of the mathematical model.
The resulting FEM equations are processed by an equation solver, which
provides a discrete solution.
FEM discretization may be constructed without any reference to physics.
The concept of error arises when the discrete solution is substituted in the
mathematical and discrete models.
This replacement is generically called verification.
The solution error is the amount by which the discrete solution fails to satisfy
the discrete equations. This error is relatively unimportant when using
computers. More relevant is the discretization error, which is the amount by
which the discrete solution fails to satisfy the mathematical model.

PHYSICAL FEM:
The processes of idealization and discretization are carried out concurrently to
produce the discrete model.
Indeed FEM discretization may be constructed and adjusted without reference
to mathematical models, simply from experimental measurements.
The concept of error arises in the physical FEM in two ways, known as
verification and validation.
Verification is the same as in the Mathematical FEM: the discrete solution is
replaced into the discrete model to get the solution error. As noted above, this
error is not generally important.
Validation tries to compare the discrete solution against observation by
computing the simulation error, which combines modeling and solution errors.
Since the latter is typically insignificant, the simulation error in practice can be
identified with the modeling error.
Comparing the discrete solution with the ideal physical system would in
principle quantify the modeling errors.

Chapter 2. The Direct Stiffness Method Of FEM

Introduction:

The primary characteristics of a finite element are embodied in the element

stiffness matrix.
For a structural finite element, the stiffness matrix contains the geometric and
material behavior information that indicates the resistance of the element to
deformation when subjected to loading.
For finite elements used in nonstructural analyses, such as fluid flow and heat
transfer, the term stiffness matrix is also used, since the matrix represents the
resistance of the element to change when subjected to external influences.

Contd
Basic premise of the finite element method is to describe the continuous
variation of the field variable (physical displacement) in terms of discrete
values at the finite element nodes. In the interior of a finite element, as well as
along the boundaries (applicable to two- and three-dimensional problems), the
field variable is described via interpolation functions that must satisfy
prescribed conditions.
As introduction we present several such principles applicable to finite element
analysis. First, and foremost, for spring and bar systems, we utilize the
principle of static equilibrium butand this is essentialwe include
deformation in the development; that is, we are not dealing with rigid body
mechanics.
For extension of the finite element method to more complicated elastic structural
systems, we also state and apply the first theorem of Castiglianos and the more
widely used principle of minimum potential energy .
Both theorems relate displacements and applied forces to the equilibrium
conditions of a mechanical system in terms of mechanical energy.

Steps In Direct Stiffness Method:

Step 1: Select the Element Type

Step 2: Select a Displacement Function
Step 3: Define the Strain/Displacement and Stress/Strain
Relationships
Step 4 :Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix and Equations
Step 5: Assemble the Element Equations to Obtain the
Global Equations and Introduce Boundary Conditions
Step 6: Solve for the Nodal Displacements
Step 7: Solve for the Element Forces

Direct Stiffness Method For Linear springs and Bars

Introduction:

The direct equilibrium approach, will be used to derive the stiffness matrix for a
one-dimensional linear springthat is, a spring that obeys Hookes law and
resists forces only in the direction of the spring.
Reference points 1 and 2 are located at the ends of the element. These reference
points are called the nodes of the spring element.
The local nodal forces are f1x and f2x for the spring element associated with the
local axis x. The local axis acts in the direction of the spring so that we can
directly measure displacements and forces along the spring.
The local nodal displacements are d1x and d2x for the spring element. These nodal
displacements are called the degrees of freedom at each node. Positive directions
for the forces and displacements at each node are taken in the positive x direction
as shown from node 1 to node 2 in the figure.
The symbol k is called the spring constant or stiffness of the spring.

Contd

know that a prismatic uniaxial bar has a spring constant , where A represents
We
the cross-sectional
area of the bar, E is the modulus of elasticity, and L is the bar

length.
Similarly, we know that a prismatic circular cross- section bar in torsion has a
spring constant , where J is the polar moment of inertia and G is the shear
modulus of the material.
For one-dimensional heat conduction, , where K xx is the thermal conductivity of
the material.
And for one- dimensional fluid flow through a porous medium, the stiffness ,
where Kxx is the permeability coefficient of the material.
Observe that the stiffness method can be applied to nonstructural problems, such
as heat transfer, fluid flow, and electrical networks, as well as structural
problems by simply applying the proper constitutive law (such as Hookes law
for structural problems, Fouriers law for heat transfer, Darcys law for fluid
flow and Ohms law for electrical networks) and a conservation principle such
as nodal equilibrium or conservation of energy.

1. The Linear Spring FEM

1. Select the element type:
. Consider the linear spring element (which can be an element in a system of
springs) subjected to resulting nodal tensile forces T (which may result from
the action of adjacent springs) directed along the spring axial direction x as
shown in Figure below, so as to be in equilibrium.
. The local x axis is directed from node 1 to node 2.
. We represent the spring by labeling nodes at each end and by labeling the
element number. The original distance between nodes before deformation is
denoted by L.
. The material property (spring constant) of the element is k.

Fig. Linear spring subjected to tensile forces

The Linear Spring FEM contd

2. Select a Displacement Function:

We must choose in advance the mathematical function to represent the deformed shape of
the spring element under loading. Because it is difficult, if not impossible at times, to
obtain a closed form or exact solution,
We assume a solution shape or distribution of displacement within the element by using
an appropriate mathematical function. The most common functions used are polynomials.
Because the spring element resists axial loading only with the local degrees of freedom for
the element being displacements d1x and d2x along the x direction, we choose a
displacement function u to represent the axial displacement throughout the element.
Here a linear displacement variation along the x axis of the spring is assumed, because a
linear function with specified endpoints has a unique path.
Therefore,

In general, the total number of coefficients a is equal to the total number of degrees of
freedom associated with the element. Here the total number of degrees of freedom is two
an axial displacement at each of the two nodes of the element In matrix form,
becomes:

Contd

We now want to express u as a function of the nodal displacements d 1x and d2x.

Back substituting the values:

In matrix form:

Where :

This will allow us to apply the physical boundary conditions on nodal

displacements directly as indicated in Step 3 and to then relate the nodal
displacements to the nodal forces in Step 4. We achieve this by evaluating u at
each node and solving for a1 and a2.

Contd

N1 and N2 are called the shape functions because the Nis express the shape of
the assumed displacement function over the domain (x coordinate) of the
element when the ith element degree of freedom has unit value and all other
degrees of freedom are zero.
In this case, N1 and N2 are linear functions that have the properties that N 1= 1 at
node 1 and N1 = 0 at node 2, whereas N2 = 1 at node 2 and N2 =0 at node 1.
Also, N1 + N2 =1 for any axial coordinate along the bar.
In addition, the Nis are often called interpolation functions because we are
interpolating to find the value of a function between given nodal values.

Fig. (a) Spring element showing plots of (b) displacement function u and
Shape functions (c) N1 and (d) N2 over domain of element

3. Define the Strain/Displacement and Stress/Strain Relationships:

The tensile forces T produce a total elongation (deformation) d of the spring.

Here d1x is a negative value because the direction of displacement is opposite to
the positive x direction, whereas d2x is a positive value.
The deformation of the spring is then represented by:

For a spring element, we can relate the force in the spring directly to the
deformation. Therefore, the strain/displacement relationship is not necessary
here.
The stress/strain relationship can be expressed in terms of the force/deformation
relationship instead as:

4: Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix and Equations

We now derive the spring element stiffness matrix. By the sign convention for
nodal forces and equilibrium, we have:

or

In a single matrix equation yields:

This relationship holds for the spring along the Y axis. From our basic definition
of a stiffness matrix and application.

Here k is called the local stiffness matrix for the element. We observe from that k
is a symmetric (that is, kij = kji square matrix (the number of rows equals the
number of columns in k).
The main diagonal of the stiffness matrix is always positive. Otherwise, a positive
nodal force Fi could produce a negative displacement dia behavior contrary to
the physical behavior of any actual structure.

5 : Assemble the Element Equations to Obtain the Global Equations and

Introduce Boundary Conditions
The global stiffness matrix and global force matrix are assembled using nodal
force equilibrium equations, force/deformation and compatibility equations, and
the direct stiffness method described.
This step applies for structures composed of more than one element such that

where k and f are now element stiffness and force matrices expressed in a global
reference frame. (the sign used in this context does not imply a simple summation
of element matrices but rather denotes that these element matrices must be
assembled properly according to the direct stiffness method.
6: Solve for the Nodal Displacements
The displacements are then determined by imposing boundary conditions, such
as support conditions, and solving a system of equations, F = Kd,
simultaneously.
7 :Solve for the Element Forces
Finally, the element forces are determined by back-substitution, applied to each
element, into equations

The direct stiffness method for elastic Bar

Consider an elastic bar subjected to axial forces only.
This element, which we simply call a bar element, is particularly useful in the
analysis of both two- and three dimensional frame or truss structures.
Formulation of the finite element characteristics of an elastic bar element is
based on the following assumptions:
1. The bar is geometrically straight.
2. The material obeys Hookes law.
3. Forces are applied only at the ends of the bar.
4.
The bar supports axial loading only; bending, torsion, and shear are not
transmitted to the element via the nature of its connections to other elements.
. The last assumption, while quite restrictive, is not impractical; this condition is
satisfied if the bar is connected to other structural members via pins (2-D) or
ball and socket joints (3-D).
. Recognize this element as the familiar two-force member of elementary statics,
meaning, for equilibrium, the forces exerted on the ends of the element must be
collinear, equal in magnitude, and opposite in sense.

Contd

Fig. A bar (or truss) element with element coordinate system and nodal displacement
notation.

Figure above depicts an elastic bar of length L to which is affixed a uniaxial

coordinate system x with its origin arbitrarily placed at the left end. This is the
element coordinate system or reference frame. Denoting axial displacement at
any position along the length of the bar as u(x), we define nodes 1 and 2 at each
end as shown and introduce the nodal displacements;
u1 = u(x = 0) and u2 = u(x = L).

Thus, we have the continuous field variable u(x), which is to be expressed

(approximately) in terms of two nodal variables u1 and u2. To accomplish this
discretization, we assume the existence of interpolation functions N1(x ) and
N2(x ) (also known as shape or blending functions) such that:

Contd
To determine the interpolation functions, we require that the boundary values of
u(x ) (the nodal displacements) be identically satisfied by the discretization
such that:
This lead to the following boundary (nodal) conditions:

As we have two conditions that must be satisfied by each of two onedimensional functions, the simplest forms for the interpolation functions are
polynomial forms:
Application of conditions represented by the previous Equation above yields a0
= 1, b0 = 0 while Equation above results in a1 = (1/L) and b1 = x/L. Therefore,
the interpolation functions are
And the continuous displacement function is represented by the discretization

Contd

This can be expressed in matrix form as:

The task remains to determine the relation between the nodal displacements and
applied forces to obtain the stiffness matrix for the bar element.
Recall from elementary strength of materials that the deflection of an elastic bar
of length L and uniform cross-sectional area A when subjected to axial load P is
given by:

where E is the modulus of elasticity of the material. Using the above Equation,
we obtain the equivalent spring constant of an elastic bar as.

Ultimately, we wish to compute the nodal displacements given some loading

condition on the element.
To obtain the necessary equilibrium equations relating the displacements to
applied forces, we proceed from displacement to strain, strain to stress, and stress
to loading, as follows. In uniaxial loading, as in the bar element, we need
consider only the normal strain component, defined as

Contd.

which, when applied to Equation

which shows that the spar element is a constant strain element. This is in accord
with strength of materials theory: The element has constant cross-sectional area
and is subjected to constant forces at the end points, so the strain does not vary
along the length. The axial stress, by Hookes law, is then

And the associated axial force is:

Lets now use it to relate the applied nodal forces f1 and f2 to the nodal
displacements u1 and u2.

Contd
The equations are expressed in matrix form as:

Stiffness matrix for the bar element is given by:

As is the case with the linear spring, we observe that the element stiffness matrix
for the bar element is symmetric, singular, and of order 2 2 in correspondence
with two nodal displacements or degrees of freedom.
It must be emphasized that the stiffness matrix given by the Equation above is
expressed in the element coordinate system, which in this case is onedimensional. Application of this element formulation to analysis of two- and
three-dimensional structures is considered in the next Topics.

Finite element method for truss

Vector transformation in 2-dimension

Local coordinates are always chosen to represent the individual element
conveniently. Global coordinates are chosen to be convenient for the whole
structure.
Given the nodal displacement of an element, represented by the vector d in
figure below, we want to relate the components of this vector in one coordinate
system to components in another. For general purposes, we will assume in this
section that d is not coincident with either the local or the global axis. In this
case, we want to relate global displacement components to local ones. In doing
so, we will develop a transformation matrix that will subsequently be used to
develop the global stiffness matrix for a bar element. We define the angle to
be positive when measured counterclockwise from X to x. We can express
vector displacement d in both global and local coordinates by:

Contd.
We will now relate i and j to i and j through use of the following Figure:

From vector addition :

Form laws of cosine :
And because i is, by definition, a unit vector, its magnitude is given 1:
There for we obtain

Now a is in the i direction and b is in the j direction. Therefore,

Contd
This yields :

Similarly:

So from

Combining similar terms:

In matrix form:

Where:

is called the transformation (or rotation) matrix

Direct Stiffness method for Truss

Contd.

We will now use the transformation relationship to obtain the global stiffness
matrix for a bar element in truss. We need the global stiffness matrix of each
element to assemble the total global stiffness matrix of the structure.
We have shown that for a bar element in the local coordinate system,

We now want to relate the global element nodal forces f to the global nodal
displacements d for a bar element arbitrarily oriented with respect to the global
axes as was shown in Figure above. This relationship will yield the global
stiffness matrix k of the element. That is, we want to find a matrix k such that

Contd

Or, in simplified matrix:

We know from vector transformation relationship:
In matrix:
Or as

where:

Similarly, because forces transform in the same manner as displacements, we have

or
So relating the force and the displacements:
Substituting the above transformations:

Contd
However, to write the final expression relating global nodal forces to global
nodal displacements for an element, we must invert T. This is not immediately
possible because T is not a square matrix. Therefore, we must expand d, f , and
k to the order that is consistent with the use of global coordinates even though
f1y and f2y are zero. Using vector transformation for each nodal displacement,
we thus obtain

Or
where:
Similarly we can write

Contd

Also, k must be expanded to a 4 x 4 matrix. Therefore, in expanded form

becomes:

Because f 1y and f 2y are zero, rows of zeros corresponding to the row numbers
f1y and f 2y appear in k.
Finally we obtain:

Solving for f:

where T-1 is the inverse of T. but it can be shown that T-1 is equal to TT .
where TT is the transpose of T. (Property of orthogonal Matrix)

Contd

Equating equations

We obtain the transformed elemental matrix as:

and

The obtained matrix would be:

The stiffness matrix and force matrix for each element can be summed by using
the direct stiffness method to obtain

K now relates the global nodal forces F to the global nodal displacements d for
the whole structure by:

Computing Stress in bars (Truss)

For a bar, the local forces are related to the local displacements by the following
equation. This equation is repeated here for convenience.

The usual definition of axial tensile stress is axial force divided by crosssectional area. Therefore, axial stress is:

where f2x is used because it is the axial force that pulls on the bar.

Substituting the axial stress in the above equation:

Now by using the transformation concept:

In simpler form

where:

Finite Element Method for Beam

A. ELEMENTARY BEAM THEORY (Euler- Bernoulli beam theory ):
. Figure below (a) depicts a simply supported beam subjected to a general,
distributed, transverse load q(x ) assumed to be expressed in terms of force per
unit length. The coordinate system is as shown with x representing the axial
coordinate and y the transverse coordinate. The usual assumptions of
elementary beam theory are applicable here:
1. The beam is loaded only in the y direction.
2. Deflections of the beam are small in comparison to the characteristic
dimensions of the beam.
3. The material of the beam is linearly elastic, isotropic, and homogeneous.
4. The beam is prismatic and the cross section has an axis of symmetry in the
plane of bending

Contd

Considering a differential length dx of a beam after bending as in Figure above b

(with the curvature greatly exaggerated), it is intuitive that the top surface has
decreased in length while the bottom surface has increased in length. Hence, there
is a layer that must be un deformed during bending. Assuming that this layer is
located distance from the center of curvature O and choosing this layer (which,
recall, is known as the neutral surface) to correspond to y = 0, the length after
bending at any position y is expressed as:

And the bending strain is then:

From basic calculus, the radius of curvature of a planar curve is given by:

where v = v(x) represents the deflection curve of the neutral surface.

In keeping with small deflection theory, slopes are also small, so above is
approximated by:

Contd
such that the normal strain in the direction of the longitudinal axis as a result of
bending is:

And the corresponding normal stress is:

where E is the modulus of elasticity of the beam material. Equation above shows
that, at a given cross section, the normal stress varies linearly with distance from
the neutral surface.
As no net axial force is acting on the beam cross section, the resultant force of the
stress distribution given by Equation above must be zero. Therefore, at any axial
position x along the length, we have:

Noting that at an arbitrary cross section the curvature is constant, Equation above
gives:

Contd
The above equation is satisfied if the xz plane (y = 0) passes through the centroid
of the area. Thus, we obtain the well-known result that the neutral surface is
perpendicular to the plane of bending and passes through the centroid of the
cross-sectional area.
Similarly, the internal bending moment at a cross section must be equivalent to
the resultant moment of the normal stress distribution, so

The integral term in the above equation represents the moment of inertia (I z ) of
the cross sectional area about the z axis, so the bending moment expression
becomes:

Combining Equations of normal stress and bending moment, we obtain the

normal stress equation for:

In the above equation as per the sign convention compressive (negative) and
tensile (positive) stress values are obtained correctly depending on the sign of the
y location value.

B. Beam stiffness

beam is a long, slender structural member generally subjected to transverse

Aloading
that produces significant bending effects as opposed to twisting or axial

effects.
This bending deformation is measured as a transverse displacement and a
rotation. Hence, the degrees of freedom considered per node are a transverse
displacement and a rotation.
Consider the beam element shown in Figure below. The beam is of length L with
axial local coordinate and transverse local coordinate . The local transverse
nodal displacements are given by s and the rotations by s. The local nodal
forces are given by s and the bending moments by s as shown. We initially
neglect all axial effects.

At all nodes, the following sign conventions are used:

2. Rotations

are positive in the counterclockwise direction.

1. Moments are positive in the counterclockwise direction.

3. Forces are positive in the positive y direction.

4. Displacements are positive in the positive y direction.
Figure below indicates the sign conventions used in simple beam theory
for positive shear forces and bending moments .

The differential equation is derived as follows. Consider the beam shown in Figure below
subjected to a distributed loading (force/length). From force and moment equilibrium of a
differential element of the beam, shown in the next Figure (c),we have:

Beam Stiffness Matrix Based on Euler-Bernoulli Beam Theory

Bending Deformations Only)

(Considering

The differential equation is derived as follows. Consider the beam shown in

Figure (a) above subjected to a distributed loading (force/length). From force and
moment equilibrium of a differential element of the beam, shown in Figure
above (c), we have:

Or, simplifying the above equation, we obtain

The final form of the above equation relating the shear force to the bending
moment, is obtained by dividing the left equation by and then taking the limit of
the equation as approaches 0. The term then disappears.

Contd
Also, the curvature k of the beam is related to the moment by

where r is the radius of the deflected curve shown in Figure above (b), is the
transverse displacement function in the direction, E is the modulus of elasticity,
and I is the principal moment of inertia about theaxis.
The curvature for small slopes:
is given by:
Combining the above two equations:
Solving Eq. above for M and substituting this result into the shear force and the
distributed load equations found earlier we obtain.

For constant EI and only nodal forces and moments, the above equation becomes:

Now we will use the above equation to develop a stiffness matrix in direct method
just like we did for trusses and bars.

1. Select the element type

the beam by labeling nodes at each end and in general by labeling the
Represent
element number
(figure).

2. Select a displacement function:

Assume the transverse displacement variation through the element length to be:

The complete cubic displacement function Eq. (above) is appropriate because

there are four total degrees of freedom (a transverse displacement and a small
rotation at each node). The cubic function also satisfies the basic beam
differential equationfurther justifying its selection. In addition, the cubic
function also satisfies the conditions of displacement and slope continuity at
nodes shared by two elements.

Contd..

the same procedure as described in FEM of bars, we express as a function

Using
of the nodal
degrees of freedom ,, , and as follows:

where
for the assumed small rotation . Solving the above equations for
a1 through a4 in terms of the nodal degrees of freedom and substituting into the
transverse displacement equation we have:

Contd
In matrix form:

N1, N2, N3, and N4 are called the shape functions for a beam element. These
cubic shape (or interpolation) functions are known as Hermite cubic
interpolation (or cubic spline) functions.

Step 3 : Define the Strain/Displacement and Stress/Strain Relationships

Assume the following axial strain/displacement relationship to be valid:

we can relate the axial displacement to the transverse displacement by:

where we should recall from elementary beam theory the basic assumption that
cross sections of the beam (such as cross section ABCD) that are planar before
bending deformation remain planar after deformation. and, in general, rotate
through a small angle

Contd

From elementary beam theory, the bending moment and shear force are related
to the transverse displacement function. Because we will use these relationships
in the derivation of the beam element stiffness matrix, we now present them as

Step 4 Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix and Equations:

First, derive the element stiffness matrix and equations using a direct
equilibrium approach. We now relate the nodal and beam theory sign
conventions for shear forces and bending moments.

Contd

Where the minus signs in the second and third of (the above equations) are the
result of opposite nodal and beam theory positive bending moment
conventions. In matrix form, the above equation becomes:

Where the stiffness matrix is then:

Note :This method doesnt include the effect of transverse axial shear deflections.
Castiglione's method for finding beam and frame deflections is a convenient
way to include the effects of the transverse shear term. E.g (Timoshenko beam)

Distributed Loading in Beams:

Beam members can support distributed loading as well as concentrated nodal

loading. Therefore, we must be able to account for distributed loading.
Consider the fixed-fixed beam subjected to a uniformly distributed loading w
shown in Figure below.
Therefore, guided by the results from structural analysis for the case of a
uniformly distributed load, we replace the load by concentrated nodal forces
and moments tending to have the same effect on the beam as the actual
distributed load.

Example Determining Equivalent Loads

Goal
is to ensure equivalent loads produce same strain energy

By making use of the work equivalence method:

This method is based on the concept that the work of the distributed load w() in
going through the displacement field v() is equal to the work done by nodal
loads and in going through nodal displacements and for arbitrary nodal
displacements.

v( x) N1 ( x)v1 N 2 ( x)1 N 3 ( x)v2 N 4 ( x) 2

L

2
3
N1 ( x) 3 x 3 2 x 2 1
L
L
1
2
N 2 ( x) 2 x 3 x 2 x
L
L
2
3
N 3 ( x) 3 x 3 2 x 2
L
L
1
1
N 4 ( x) 2 x 3 x 2
L
L

W v ( x )qdx q v ( x ) dx
0

W q N 1 ( x )v1 N 2 ( x )1 N 3 ( x )v 2 N 4 ( x ) 2 dx
0

W q N 1 ( x ) v1dx q N 2 ( x )1 dx q N 3 ( x )v2 dx q N 4 ( x ) 2 dx
0

W q v1 N 1 ( x ) dx 1 N 2 ( x ) dx v2 N 3 ( x ) dx 2 N 4 ( x ) dx
0
0
0
0

L
1
L
1
W qL v1 1 v 2 2
12
2
12
2
L

Equivalent Loads (continued)

W F v1 v 2 M 1 2
W F v1 v 2 M 1 2
qL
2
qL2
M
12
F

F
M

L
1
L
1
qL v1 1 v 2 2
12
2
12
2
F
M

In the same way one can use the work equivalence method to analyze other type
of loadings.

General Formulation:

general, we can account for distributed loads or concentrated loads acting on

In
beam
elements by starting with the following formulation application for a
general structure:

where F are the concentrated nodal forces and F o are called the equivalent nodal
forces,
Assume that concentrated nodal forces are not present , as we are solving beam
problems with distributed loading only.
For a uniformly distributed load w acting over a one-element beam, we have:

Finite Element method for Frames:

Frames are used in Structures like buildings and bridges.

Frame is a combination of beam element in plane and trusses.
Consider a two dimensional arbitrarily oriented beam element:
Local displacements transformed in to global

From the figure we can see that only a displacement in the direction of local
coordinate exists so we take only the second term in equation of the
transformation matrix and expand it to a three degree of freedom equation at each
node.

Contd

Where :
elements

is the transformation matrix for beam

Note:- Here the axial effect is not yet included. And that rotation is invariant with
respect to either coordinate system. For example, rotation , and moment
Recall a stiffness matrix for beam element in elemental coordinate system was
found earlier to be:

Contd

By using the general formula of stiffness matrix transformation in to global stiff

ness;

The general global stiffness matrix is:

The above stiffness matrix is for beam element that includes shear and bending
resistance. Local axial effects are not yet included.

FRAME FEM contd

To include the axial effect consider the following figure:

The element now has three degrees of freedom per each node.
Recall for axial loading of on bars:

Recall also the shear and bending Effect of beams:

Contd

Combining
we have. the axial loading, the shear and bending moment in local coordinate

The matrix in Eq. above now has three degrees of freedom per node and it
includes axial effects (in the direction), as well as shear force effects (in the
direction) and principal bending moment effects (about the axis).

Contd..

Next step is to relate the local displacement to the global by the transformation
matrix with 3 degrees of freedom at each node.

Contd

By using the general formula of stiffness matrix transformation in to global stiff

ness; which is:

we obtain the general transformed global stiffness matrix for a beam element
that includes axial force, shear force, and bending moment effects as follows:

CHAPTER THREE:

Introduction To FEM for Two Dimensional Finite

Elements

2D planar elements are thin-plate elements.

2D coordinates define a position on the 2D element surface.

Contd

Contd..

Contd

Contd..

Contd

Once the nodal displacements are determined these stress can be evaluated directly

Contd

Contd

Contd

Contd

Contd

Contd.

Contd

Contd

Contd..

Contd

Contd

Contd

Contd

Contd

Contd

Contd

Contd

Contd

Contd

Contd

Contd..
3.2 Rectangular plane stress Element:
Two advantages of the rectangular element over the triangular element are :
Ease of data input and
simpler interpretation of output stresses.
A disadvantage of the rectangular element is that the
simple linear-displacement rectangle with its associated straight sides poorly
approximates the real boundary condition edges.

Step 1: Select Element Type

Consider the rectangular element shown in Figure below (all interior angles are
90o)with corner nodes 14 (again labeled counterclockwise) and base and height
dimensions2b and 2h, respectively.

Contd

Step 2 Select Displacement Functions

We then select the linear displacement functions as:

We can proceed in the usual manner to eliminate the ais

Contd
In terms of the shape functions and unknown nodal displacements:

And the Nis are again such that N1 = 1 at node 1 and N1 = 0 at all the other nodes, with
similar requirements for the other shape functions. In expanded form,

Contd
Step 3: Define the Strain/Displacement and Stress/Strain Relationships
Again the element strains for the two-dimensional stress state are given by

Using the interpolation function Eq. (in the above equation) and taking the
derivatives of u and v as indicated, we can express the strains in terms of the
unknown nodal displacements as

Contd

From the above two equations we observe that x is a function of y, y is a function of x,

and xy is a function of both x and y. The stresses are again given by the formulas in
chapter 3, where [B] is now that of the above equation and {dg} is that of Eq..

Step 4 : Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix and Equations

with [D]again given by the usual plane stress or plane strain conditions, of the
equation in chapter. Because the [B] matrix is a function of x and y, integration
must be performed. The [k] matrix for the rectangular element is now of order
8x 8. The element force matrix is determined by:

Contd
where [N] is the rectangular matrix of the shape functions N 1 through N4. The
element equations are then given by:

Steps 57

Steps 57, which involve assembling the global stiffness matrix and equations,
determining the unknown nodal displacements, and calculating the stress, are
identical to those in chapter 3 for the Constant strain triangular element.

Chapter Four

Introduction to FEM for Three- Dimensional

Elements
4.1 Three-Dimensional Stress and Strain
We begin by considering the three-dimensional infinitesimal element in Cartesian
coordinates with dimensions dx; dy, and dz and normal and shear stresses as shown in Figure
below.

From moment equilibrium of the element,

Hence, there are only three independent shear stresses, along with the three normal
stresses

The element strain/displacement relationships are:

where u; v, and w are the displacements associated with the x; y, and z

directions. The shear strains are now given by

We again represent the stresses and strains by column matrices

as

Contd

The stress/strain relationships for an isotropic material are again given by

the constitutive matrix [D]

4.2 : Tetrahedral Element

Step 1 Select Element Type
Consider the tetrahedral element shown in Figure below with corner nodes 14.
This element is a four-noded solid.
The nodes of the element must be numbered such that when viewed from the
last node (say, node 4), the first three nodes are numbered in a counterclockwise
manner, such as 1, 2, 3, 4 or 2, 3, 1, 4. This ordering of nodes avoids the
calculation of negative volumes and is consistent with the counterclockwise
node numbering associated with the CST element in the previous chapter.

Contd

The unknown nodal displacements are now given by:

Hence, there are 3 degrees of freedom per node,
or 12 total degrees of freedom per element.

Step 2: Select Displacement Functions

The element displacement functions u; v, and w must be linear along each edge

In the same manner as in 2D, we can express the a is in terms of the known
nodal coordinates (x1, y1, z1,. . . , z4) and the unknown nodal displacements (u1,
v1, w1,. . . w4) of the element. Skipping the straight forward but tedious details,
we obtain

Contd..

where 6V is obtained by evaluating the determinant

and V represents the volume of the tetrahedron. The coefficients 1,1, 1, and
i (i=1, 2, 3,4) are given by:

Contd

Contd.
Expressions for v and w are obtained by simply substituting vis for all uis and then
wis for all uis.
The displacement expression for u with similar expressions for v and w, can be
written equivalently in expanded form in terms of the shape functions and unknown
nodal displacements as

Contd
Step 3 : Define the Strain / Displacement and Stress / Strain Relationships
The element strains for the three-dimensional stress state are given by:

Contd
where, again, the comma after the subscript indicates differentiation with respect to
the variable that follows. Sub matrices B2; B3, and B4 are defined by simply
indexing the subscript in the above equation from 1 to 2, 3, and then 4, respectively.
Substituting the shape functions, B1 is expressed as:

with similar expressions for B2; B3, and B4.

The element stresses are related to the element strains by

Contd

Step 4: Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix and Equations

Because both matrices [B] and [D] are constant for the simple tetrahedral element

where, again, V is the volume of the element. The element stiffness matrix is
now of order 12 x 12.

Body Forces:
The element body force matrix is given by

Contd
For constant body forces, the nodal components of the total resultant body forces
can be shown to be distributed to the nodes in four equal parts. That is,

The element body force is then a 12 x 1 matrix

Surface Forces:
Again, the surface forces are given by:

For example, consider the case of uniform pressure p acting on the face with
nodes 13; The resulting nodal forces become:

Contd.

Simplifying and integrating:

4.3: Rectangular Brick element

Isoparametric Formulation:(Linear Hexahedral Element)
The basic (linear) hexahedral element [Figure below] now has eight corner nodes
with Isoparametric natural coordinates given by s; t, and z as shown in the Figure.
The element faces are now defined by s; t; z= 1. (We use s; t, and z for the
coordinate axes because they are probably simpler to use than Greek letters , and
).

Contd
The function use to describe the element geometry for x in terms of the generalized
degrees of freedom ais is:

The same form as the above equation is used for y and z as well. Just start with
a9 through a16 for y and a17 through a24 for z.
Now , we expand equation used in 2D to include the z coordinate as follows:

Contd
when, s1 = 1, t1 = 1, and z1 = +1 are used in the above equation we obtain:

Explicit forms of the other shape functions follow similarly:

For instance, when we let i = 8 and substitute s8 = 1, t8 = 1, z8= 1 into the
equation for N8, we obtain:

Then evaluating all shape functions at node 8, we obtain N 8 = 1, and all other
shape functions equal zero at node 8. we see that N 1 = 0 when s = 1or when t = 1

CHAPTER 5: FEM for Heat Transfer Problems

5.1: One-Dimensional Heat Conduction (without Convection):
By conservation of energy, we have:

Where:
Ein : is the energy entering the control volume, in units of joules (J)
U: is the change in stored energy, in units of kW h (kWh)
qx: is the heat conducted (heat flux) into the control volume at surface
edge x, in units of kW/m2
qx+dx : is the heat conducted out of the control volume at the surface edge x+dx.
t is time, in h or s.
Q : is the internal heat source (heat generated per unit time per unit volume is positive), in
kW/m3; (a heat sink, heat drawn out of the volume, is negative).
A: is the cross-sectional area perpendicular to heat flow q, in m 2

By Fouriers law of heat conduction,

where
Kxx: is the thermal conductivity in the x direction, in kW/(m0C).
T: is the temperature, in 0 C.

By Taylor series expansion, for any general function f (x), we have

Therefore, using a two-term Taylor series:

The change in stored energy can be expressed by

Contd
where c is the specific heat in kW h/(kg 0 C)), and is the mass density in kg/m3.
simplifying, we have the one-dimensional heat conduction equation as:

For steady state, any differentiation with respect to time is equal to zero:

For constant thermal conductivity and steady state:

The boundary conditions are of the form

Heat Transfer with Convection

for conservation of energy, we have:

All terms have the same meaning as in previous, except the heat flow by
convective heat transfer is given by Newtons law of cooling:

h is the heat-transfer or convection coefficient, in kW/(m2 0C)

T is the temperature of the solid surface at the solid/fluid interface.
T is the temperature of the fluid (here the free-stream fluid temperature).
P: denotes the perimeter around the constant cross-sectional area A.

Contd

simplifying, we obtain the equation for one-dimensional heat conduction with

convection as:

we have:

As a boundary condition for the problem of heat conduction with convection.

One dimensional FEM formulation of heat transfer using

variational method

Step 1 Select Element Type:

Step 2 Choose a Temperature Function:

are again the same shape functions as used for the bar element. The [N] matrix
is then given by

Contd

In matrix form, we express:

Step 3 : Define the Temperature Gradient/Temperature and Heat
Flux/Temperature Gradient Relationships
The temperature gradient matrix {g}, analogous to the strain matrix {}, is given by

The heat flux/temperature gradient relationship is given by:

where the material property matrix is now given by:

Step 4 Derive the Element Conduction Matrix and Equations:

Substituting the equation derived earlier

using the fact that the nodal temperatures {t} are independent of the general
coordinates x and y and can therefore be taken outside the integrals, we have

Contd

minimization is most easily accomplished by explicitly writing the surface

The
integral
S3 with {t}left inside the integral as shown:

where the last term (hT)is a constant that drops out while minimizing .
Simplifying:

Contd

The first term {fQ}(heat source positive, sink negative) is of the same form as
the body-force term, and the second term {fq}(heat flux, positive into the
surface) and third term {fh}(heat transfer or convection) are similar to surface
tractions (distributed loading) in the stress analysis problem.
we have the element conduction matrix* for the heat-transfer problem:

where the first and second integrals are the contributions of conduction and
convection, respectively. for each element, we have:

The conduction part of the [k] matrix for the one-dimensional element becomes:

Contd

P is the perimeter of the element (assumed to be constant)

we find that the [k] matrix is:

Contd

h is zero on the boundary of an element, the second term on the right side
When
(convection
portion of [k]) is zero. This corresponds, for instance, to an

insulated boundary.
The force matrix terms, on simplifying and assuming Q, q, and product hT to be
constant are:

Therefore, adding all terms, we obtain:

Contd

equation above indicates that one-half of the assumed uniform heat source
The
Q goes
to each node, one-half of the prescribed uniform heat flux q (positive q

enters the body) goes to each node, and one-half of the convection from the
perimeter surface hT goes to each node of an element.
Finally, we must consider the convection from the free end of an element. For
simplicitys sake, we will assume convection occurs only from the right end of
the element, as shown:

The additional convection term contribution to the stiffness matrix is given by:

Now N1 = 0 and N2 =1 at the right end of the element. Substituting the Ns

Contd

The convection force from the free end of the element is evaluated with the
shape functions now evaluated at the right end (where convection occurs) and
with S3 (the surface over which convection occurs) now equal to the crosssectional area A of the rod. Hence,

represents the convective force from the right end of an element where N 1(x=L)
represents N1 evaluated at x=L, and so on.
Step 5 : Assemble the Element Equations to Obtain the Global Equations and
Introduce Boundary Conditions

Contd

Step 6 :Solve for the Nodal Temperatures

Step 7 : Solve for the Element Temperature
Gradients and Heat Fluxes

Contd