CHAPTER #5

System Modelling

Systems
System
Experiment with
a model of the
System

Experiment with
actual System

Mathematical
Model

Physical Model
Analytical
Solution

Simulation

Frequency
Domain

Time Domain

Hybrid Domain

Model

A model is a simplified
representation or abstraction of
reality.
Reality is generally too complex to
copy exactly.
Much of the complexity is actually
irrelevant in problem solving

What is a Model used for?

Simulation
Prediction / Forecasting
Prognostics / Diagnostics
Design / Performance Evaluation
Control System Design

What is Mathematical
Model?
A set of mathematical equations that
describes the input-output behavior of a
system.
The quantitative mathematical models of
physical systems is used to design and
analyze control systems.
Most physical systems are nonlinear, thus
linearization approximations will be
discussed, which allow us to use Laplace
transform methods.
It is easier this way to obtain the inputoutput
relationship for components and subsystems

Mathematical Models
If the dynamic behaviour of a physical
system can be represented by an equation,
or set of equations, this is referred to as the
mathematical model of the system.
Such models can be obtained from physical
characterstics of the systems, i.e.
resistance for an electrical system.
Alternatively, can be determined by
experimentation, by measuring how the
system output responds to known inputs.

Mathematical Modelling Basics

Mathematical model of a real world system is
derived using a combination of physical laws
and/or experimental means.
Physical laws are used to determine the
model structure (linear or nonlinear) and
order.
The parameters of the model are often
estimated and/or validated experimentally.
Mathematical model of a dynamic system can
often be expressed as a system of differential
(difference in the case of discrete-time
systems) equations.

Mathematical Modelling
Basics
Classification of Models:

Linear vs. Non-linear

Deterministic vs. Probabilistic
(Stochastic)

Static vs. Dynamic

Discrete vs. Continuous

White box, black box and grey box

Black Box Model

When only input and output are
known.
Internal dynamics are either too
complex or unknown.
Input

Easy to Model

Output

Grey Box Model

When input and output and some
information
about
the
internal
dynamics of the system is known.
u(t)

y(t)
y[u(t), t]

Easier than white box Modelling.

White Box Model

When input and output and internal
dynamics of the system is known.
u(t)

dy(t )
du(t ) d 2 y(t )
3

dt
dt
dt 2

y(t)

One should know have complete

knowledge of the system to derive a
white box model.

Different Types of LumpedParameter Models

System Type

Model Type

Linear

Input-output
differential
equation.
State equations

Linear Time
Invariant

Transfer
Function

Nonlinear

Approach to Dynamic Systems

Define the system and its components.

Formulate the mathematical model and list

the necessary assumptions.

Write the differential equations describing

the model.

Solve the equations for the desired output

variables.

Examine
the
assumptions.

If necessary, reanalyze or redesign the

solutions

and

the

Model Simulation

Computer simulation is the discipline of

designing a model of an actual or
theoretical physical system, executing the
model on a digital computer, and
analyzing the execution output.
Simulation embodies the principle of
``learning by doing'; to learn about the
system we must first build a model of
some sort and then operate the model.

Modelling and
Simulation Process
Project Description

Advantages to Simulation

Can be used to study existing systems

without disrupting the ongoing operations.
Proposed systems can be tested before
committing resources.

Allows us to control time.

Allows us to identify bottlenecks.

Allows us to gain insight into which

variables are most important to system
performance.

Disadvantages to
Simulation
Model building is an art as well as science.
The quality of the analysis depends on the
quality of the model and the skill of the
modeler.
Simulation results are sometimes hard to
interpret.
Simulation analysis can be time
consuming and expensive. Should not be
used when an analytical method would
provide for quicker results.

Simple Model of a
Vehicle Motor

Accelator pedal angle,

Forward speed, u

More Complex Models

Simple model in the previous implies
that any change in the accelerator angle
produces instantaneous change in
vehicle forward speed.
But, it takes time to build up to a new
forward speed, so to model dynamic
characteristics of the vehicle accurately,
this needs to be taken into account
We need differential equations!

More Complex Models

More accurate model of motor vehicle

du/dt is the acceleration of vehicle. When it

travels at constant velocity, this term
becomes zero. So then

Same form as simple model

Differential Equations
Linear diff. Equations with constant
coefficients.
First-order
Second-order

Third-order

Models of Electrical
Systems

Models of Electrical
Systems

Example #1
Find differential equation relating V1(t)
and V2(t)

Example #1 (solution)

Differential Equation of Physical

Systems

d
y ( t ) b y ( t) k y ( t)
2
dt
dt

r( t )

Differential Equation of Physical

Systems

1
d
C v ( t ) v ( t) d t
R
L 0
dt

v( t)

y( t)

K 1 e

1 t

r( t )

sin 1 t 1

Linear Approximations

Linear Approximations
Linear Systems - Necessary condition
Principle of Superposition
Property of Homogeneity

Taylor Series
http://www.maths.abdn.ac.uk/%7Eigc/tch/ma2001/notes/node4
6.html

Linear Approximations Example

2.1
M 200gm

g 9.8

m
s

L 100cm

0 0rad

15
16

T0 M g L sin 0

T1 M g L sin

T2 M g L cos 0 0 T0

10

T 1( )
T 2( )

10

Students are encouraged to investigate linear approximation accuracy for different values of 0

The Laplace Transform

Definition

L( f ( t ) )

f ( t) e

s t

dt

= F(s)

Here the complex frequency is

j w

The Laplace Transform exists when

f ( t) e

s t

dt

this means that the integral converges

The Laplace Transform

Determine the Laplace transform for the functions

a)

for

f1( t) 1

F1( s )

s t

dt

b)

F2( s )

f2( t)

t0

1 ( s t )
e
s

1
s

( a t )

( a t ) ( s t )

dt

1
s1

[ ( s a) t ]

F2( s )

1
sa

The Laplace Transform

Evaluate the laplace transform of the derivative of a function

d f ( t)

dt

by the use of
where

( s t )
d
f ( t) e
dt
dt

u dv

( s t )

dv

u v

v du

df ( t )

and, from which

s e

du

( s t )

dt

and

f ( t)

we obtain

u dv

f ( t) e

( s t )

= -f(0+) +

dt

f ( t) e

( s t )

( s t )

dt

dt

d f ( t)

f ( t ) s e

= sF(s) - f(0+) note that the initial condition is included in the transformation

The Laplace Transform

Practical Example - Consider the circuit.
The KVL equation is
d
4 i( t ) 2 i( t )
dt

assume i(0+) = 5 A

Applying the Laplace Transform, we have

4 i( t) 2 d i( t) e

dt

4 I( s ) 2 ( s I( s ) i( 0) )
I( s )

5
s2

( s t )

dt

i( t ) e

( s t )

4 I( s ) 2 s I( s ) 10

d t 2

( s t )
d
i( t) e
dt
dt

transforming back to the time domain, with our present knowledge of

Laplace transform, we may say that
t ( 0 0.01 2)
6

i( t ) 5 e

( 2 t )

4
i( t )
2
0

1
t

The Laplace Transform

The Partial-Fraction Expansion (or Heaviside expansion theorem)

Suppose that
F ( s)

s z1

The partial fraction expansion indicates that F(s) consists of

( s p1 ) ( s p2 )

a sum of terms, each of which is a factor of the denominator.

The values of K1 and K2 are determined by combining the
individual fractions by means of the lowest common
denominator and comparing the resultant numerator

or

coefficients with those of the coefficients of the numerator

F (s )

K1
s p1

K2

before separation in different terms.

s p2

Evaluation of Ki in the manner just described requires the simultaneous solution of n equations.
An alternative method is to multiply both sides of the equation by (s + pi) then setting s= - pi, the
right-hand side is zero except for Ki so that

Ki

( s pi ) ( s z1)
( s p1 ) ( s p2 )

s = - pi

The Laplace Transform

Property

Time Domain

Frequency Domain
e

1. Time delay

( s T )

f ( t T) u ( t T)
1

2. Time scaling

3. Frequency

differentiation

4. Frequency shifting

5. Frequency

6. Initial-value

f ( at )

Integration

Theorem

( a t )

Theorem

F( s a)

f ( t)

Lim( f ( t ) )

F( s ) d s

f ( 0)

t -> 0
7. Final-value

d
F( s )
ds

t f ( t)

f ( t) e

F( s )

Lim( s F( s ) )
s -> infinite

Lim( f ( t ) )

Lim( s F( s ) )

t -> infinite

s -> 0

The Laplace Transform

onsider the mass-spring-damper system

( Ms b ) yo

Y( s )

equation 2.21

Ms bs k

y( s )

s1

s2

s b y

o
M

s2 b s k

s 2 n n

n n 1

s 2 n

k
M

k M

n n 1

Roots
Real
Real repeated
Imaginary (conjugates)
Complex (conjugates)

s1

n j n 1

s2

n j n 1

The Laplace Transform

The Transfer Function of Linear

Systems

V1( s )

V2( s )

Cs

V2( s )
V1( s )

Cs

I( s )

I( s )

Z 2( s )

1
Cs

Z 1( s )

Z 2( s )
1
Cs

Z 1( s ) Z 2( s )

R
1
Cs

The Transfer Function of Linear

Systems
Example 2.2
d2

The partial fraction expansion yields:

d
y ( t) 4 y( t) 3 y ( t) 2 r( t)
2
dt
dt
Initial Conditions: Y( 0) 1

d
y( 0)
dt

r( t) 1

The Laplace transform yields:

Since R(s)=1/s and y(0)=1, we obtain:

( s 4)
2
Y( s )

2
2
s 4s 3
s s 4s 3

3
2

( s 1)

1
2

( s 3)

( s 1)

1
3

2 R( s )

y ( t)

3 e t 1 e 3 t 1e t 1 e 3 t 2
2

3
2
3

The steady-state response is:

lim y ( t)
t

2
3

( s 3)

Therefore the transient response is:

s 2Y(s ) s y(0) 4(s Y(s ) y(0)) 3Y(s )

Y( s )

2
3

The Transfer Function of Linear

Systems

The Transfer Function of Linear

Systems

The Transfer Function of Linear

Systems

The Transfer Function of Linear

Systems

The Transfer Function of Linear

Systems

Kf if

Tm

K1 Kf if( t ) ia( t )

field controled motor - Lapalce Transform

Vf( s )

K1 Kf Ia If( s )
Rf Lf s If( s )

Tm( s )

TL( s ) Td ( s )

TL( s )

J s ( s ) b s ( s )

Tm( s )

rearranging equations
TL( s )

Tm( s ) Td ( s )

Tm( s )

Km If( s )

If( s )

Vf ( s )
Rf Lf s

Td ( s )

(s )

Km

Vf( s )

s ( J s b ) Lf s Rf

The Transfer Function of Linear

Systems

The Transfer Function of Linear

Systems

The Transfer Function of Linear

Systems

The Transfer Function of Linear

Systems

The Transfer Function of Linear

Systems

V 2( s )

V 1( s )

RCs

V 2( s )
V 1( s )

RCs

The Transfer Function of Linear

Systems

V 2( s )

R 2 R 1 C s 1

V 1( s )

R1

V 2( s )

R 1 C 1 s 1 R 2 C 2 s 1

V 1( s )

R 1 C 2 s

The Transfer Function of Linear

Systems

(s )
V f(s )

(s)
V a( s )

Km

s ( J s b ) L f s R f

Km

s R a L a s ( J s b ) K b K m

The Transfer Function of Linear

Systems
Km

(s )

s s 1

Vc( s )

J
( b m)

m = slope of linearized
torque-speed curve
(normally negative)

Vo( s )

s c 1 s q 1

Vc( s )
c

R R
c q

Lc

Lq

Rc
Rq
For the unloaded case:
id 0
c q
0.05s c 0.5s
V12

Vq

V34

Vd

The Transfer Function of Linear

Systems
Y( s )

X( s )
s ( Ms B)
A kx
K
B
kp
kx
g

dx
g ( x P)

kp

kp

b
d
dP

flow

A = area of piston

Gear Ratio = n = N1/N2

N2 L

N1 m

n m

n m

The Transfer Function of Linear

Systems
V2( s )

R2

R2

V1( s )

R1 R2

R2

max

V2( s )

ks 1( s ) 2( s )

V2( s )

ks error( s )

ks

Vbattery
max

The Transfer Function of Linear

Systems
V2( s )
Kt

Kt ( s )

Kt s ( s )

constant

V2( s )

ka

V1( s )

s 1

Ro = output resistance
Co = output capacitance

Ro Co

1s

and is often negligible

for controller amplifier

The Transfer Function of Linear

Systems
y ( t ) xin( t )

xo( t )
Xo( s )

Xin( s )

b s k
M
M

For low frequency oscillations, where

Xo j

Xin j

k
M

T( s )
q(s )

1
Ct s Q S

T
Ct
Q
S
Rt
q(s )

To Te = temperature difference due to thermal process

=
=
=
=
=

thermal capacitance
fluid flow rate = constant
specific heat of water
thermal resistance of insulation
rate of heat flow of heating element

The Transfer Function of Linear

Systems

converts radial motion to linear motion

Block Diagram Models

Block Diagram Models

Block Diagram Models

Original Diagram

Equivalent Diagram

Original Diagram

Equivalent Diagram

Block Diagram Models

Original Diagram

Equivalent Diagram

Original Diagram

Equivalent Diagram

Block Diagram Models

Original Diagram

Equivalent Diagram

Original Diagram

Equivalent Diagram

Block Diagram Models

Block Diagram Models

Example
2.7

Block Diagram Models

Example
2.7