Database and Web Database

Systems
CT014-3-2

SQL: Data Manipulation

Topic & Lesson Structure

Purpose and importance of SQL.
How to retrieve data from database using
SELECT and:
Use compound WHERE conditions.
Sort query results using ORDER BY.
Use aggregate functions.

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Topic & Lesson Structure

Group data using GROUP BY and HAVING.
Use subqueries
Join tables together.

How to update database using INSERT,

UPDATE, and DELETE.

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Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, YOU should be
be able to:
Explain the purpose and importance of SQL.
Write SQL statements using SELECT to retrieve data
from database.
Write SQL statements using compound WHERE
conditions.
Write SQL statements using ORDER BY to sort query
results.
Write SQL statements using Aggregate functions.

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Learning Outcomes (2)

At the end of this lesson, YOU should be
be able to:
Write SQL statements using GROUP BY and
HAVING.
Write SQL statements using sub-queries.
Write SQL statements to JOIN tables together.
Write SQL statements to update database using
INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE.

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Keywords
If you have mastered this topic, you should be able to use the
following terms correctly in your assignments and exams:

DDL (Data Definition Language)

DML (Data Manipulation Language)
CREATE TABLE
INSERT INTO . VALUES
SELECT FROM . WHERE
GROUP BY, HAVING, ORDER BY
DISTINCT
IN, NOT IN, LIKE

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Keywords
If you have mastered this topic, you should be able
to use the following terms correctly in your
assignments and exams:

NULL, IS NOT NULL

COUNT, SUM, AVG, MIN, MAX
JOIN
EXISTS, NOT EXISTS
UPDATE FROM WHERE

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Objectives of SQL
Ideally, database language should allow user to:
create the database and relation structures;
perform insertion, modification, deletion of data from
relations;
perform simple and complex queries.

Must perform these tasks with minimal user

effort and command structure/syntax must be
easy to learn.
It must be portable.

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Objectives of SQL
SQL is a transform-oriented language with 2
major components:
A DDL for defining database structure.
A DML for retrieving and updating data.

Until SQL3, SQL did not contain flow of control

commands. These had to be implemented using
a programming or job-control language, or
interactively by the decisions of user.
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Objectives of SQL
SQL is relatively easy to learn:
it is non-procedural - you specify what information you
require, rather than how to get it;
it is essentially free-format.

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Objectives of SQL
Consists of standard English words:
1) CREATE TABLE Staff(staffNo VARCHAR(5),
lName VARCHAR(15),
salary DECIMAL(7,2));

2) INSERT INTO Staff VALUES (SG16, Brown, 8300);

3) SELECT staffNo, lName, salary
FROM Staff
WHERE salary > 10000;

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Objectives of SQL
Can be used by range of users including DBAs,
management, application developers, and other types of
end users.
An ISO standard now exists for SQL, making it both the
formal and de facto standard language for relational
databases.

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History of SQL
In 1974, D. Chamberlin (IBM San Jose Laboratory)
defined language called Structured English Query
Language (SEQUEL).
A revised version, SEQUEL/2, was defined in 1976 but
name was subsequently changed to SQL for legal
reasons.

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History of SQL
Still pronounced see-quel, though official pronunciation
is S-Q-L.
IBM subsequently produced a prototype DBMS called
System R, based on SEQUEL/2.
Roots of SQL, however, are in SQUARE (Specifying
Queries as Relational Expressions), which predates
System R project.

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History of SQL
In late 70s, ORACLE appeared and was probably first
commercial RDBMS based on SQL.
In 1987, ANSI and ISO published an initial standard for
SQL.
In 1989, ISO published an addendum that defined an
Integrity Enhancement Feature.
In 1992, first major revision to ISO standard occurred,
referred to as SQL2 or SQL/92.
In 1999, SQL3 was released with support for objectoriented data management.

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Importance of SQL
SQL has become part of application architectures such
as IBMs Systems Application Architecture.
It is strategic choice of many large and influential
organizations (e.g. X/OPEN).
SQL is Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS)
to which conformance is required for all sales of
databases to American Government.

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Importance of SQL
SQL is used in other standards and even
influences development of other standards as a
definitional tool. Examples include:
ISOs Information Resource Directory System (IRDS)
Standard
Remote Data Access (RDA) Standard.

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Writing SQL Commands

SQL statement consists of reserved words and userdefined words.
Reserved words are a fixed part of SQL and must be
spelt exactly as required and cannot be split across
lines.
User-defined words are made up by user and represent
names of various database objects such as relations,
columns, views.

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Writing SQL Commands

Most components of an SQL statement are case
insensitive, except for literal character data.
More readable with indentation and lineation:
Each clause should begin on a new line.
Start of a clause should line up with start of other
clauses.
If clause has several parts, should each appear on a
separate line and be indented under start of clause.

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Writing SQL commands

Use extended form of BNF notation:
- Upper-case letters represent reserved words.
- Lower-case letters represent user-defined words.
- | indicates a choice among alternatives.
- Curly braces indicate a required element.
- Square brackets indicate an optional element.
- indicates optional repetition (0 or more).

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Literals
Literals are constants used in SQL statements.
All non-numeric literals must be enclosed in single
quotes (e.g. London).
All numeric literals must not be enclosed in quotes (e.g.
650.00).

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SELECT Statement
SELECT [DISTINCT | ALL]
{* | [columnExpression [AS newName]] [,...] }
FROM
TableName [alias] [, ...]
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY
columnList] [HAVING
condition]
[ORDER BY
columnList]

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SELECT Statement
FROM
WHERE
GROUP BY
HAVING
SELECT
ORDER BY

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Specifies table(s) to be used.

Filters rows.
Forms groups of rows with same
column value.
Filters groups subject to some
condition.
Specifies which columns are to
appear in output.
Specifies the order of the output.

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SELECT Statement
Order of the clauses cannot be changed.
Only SELECT and FROM are mandatory.

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Example: All Columns, All

Rows
List full details of all staff.
SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, address,
position, sex, DOB, salary, branchNo
FROM Staff;

Can use * as an abbreviation for all columns:

SELECT *
FROM Staff;

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Example: All Columns, All

Rows

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Example: Specific Columns, All

Rows
Produce a list of salaries for all staff, showing
only staff number, first and last names, and
salary.
SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, salary
FROM Staff;

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Example: Specific Columns, All

Rows

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Example: Use of DISTINCT

List the property numbers of all properties that
have been viewed.
SELECT propertyNo
FROM Viewing;

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Example : Use of DISTINCT

Use DISTINCT to eliminate duplicates:

SELECT DISTINCT propertyNo

FROM Viewing;

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Example: Calculated Fields

Produce a list of monthly salaries for all
staff, showing staff number, first and last
names, and salary details.
SELECT staffNo, fName, lName,
salary/12
FROM Staff;

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Example: Calculated Fields

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Example: Calculated Fields

To name column, use AS clause:
SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, salary/12
AS monthlySalary
FROM Staff;

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Example: Comparison Search

Condition
List all staff with a salary greater than
10,000.
SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, position,
salary
FROM Staff
WHERE salary > 10000;

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Example: Comparison Search

Condition

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Example: Compound Comparison

Search Condition
List addresses of all branch offices in
London or Glasgow.
SELECT *
FROM Branch
WHERE city = London OR city =
Glasgow;

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Example: Compound Comparison

Search Condition

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Example: Range Search Condition

List all staff with a salary between 20,000 and
30,000.
SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, position,
salary
FROM Staff
WHERE salary BETWEEN 20000 AND 30000;

BETWEEN test includes the endpoints of range.

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Example: Range Search Condition

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Example: Range Search Condition

Also a negated version NOT BETWEEN.
BETWEEN does not add much to SQLs
expressive power. Could also write:

SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, position, salary

FROM Staff
WHERE salary>=20000 AND salary <= 30000;

Useful, though, for a range of values.

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Example: Set Membership

List all managers and supervisors.
SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, position
FROM Staff
WHERE position IN (Manager, Supervisor);

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Example: Set Membership

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Example: Set Membership

There is a negated version (NOT IN).
IN does not add much to SQLs expressive
power.
Could have expressed this as:
SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, position
FROM Staff
WHERE position=Manager OR
position=Supervisor;

IN is more efficient when set contains many

values

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Example: Pattern Matching

Find all owners with the string Glasgow in
their address.
SELECT clientNo, fName, lName,
address, telNo
FROM PrivateOwner
WHERE address LIKE %Glasgow%;

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Example: Pattern Matching

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Example: Pattern Matching

SQL has two special pattern matching
symbols:
%: sequence of zero or more characters;
_ (underscore): any single character.

LIKE %Glasgow% means a sequence of

characters of any length containing
Glasgow.

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Example: NULL Search

Condition
List details of all viewings on property PG4
where a comment has not been supplied.
There are 2 viewings for property PG4, one with
and one without a comment.
Have to test for null explicitly using special
keyword IS NULL:

SELECT clientNo, viewDate

FROM Viewing
WHERE propertyNo = PG4 AND
comment IS NULL;
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Example: NULL Search

Condition

Negated version (IS NOT NULL) can test for

non-null values.

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Example: Single Column Ordering

List salaries for all staff, arranged in
descending order of salary.
SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, salary
FROM Staff
ORDER BY salary DESC;

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Example: Single Column Ordering

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Example: Multiple Column

Ordering
Produce abbreviated list of properties in
order of property type.
SELECT propertyNo, type, rooms,rent
FROM PropertyForRent
ORDER BY type;

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Example: Multiple Column

Ordering

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Example: Multiple Column

Ordering
Four flats in this list - as no minor sort key
specified, system arranges these rows in
any order it chooses.
To arrange in order of rent, specify minor
order:
SELECT propertyNo, type, rooms, rent
FROM PropertyForRent
ORDER BY type, rent DESC;
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Example: Multiple Column

Ordering

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SELECT Statement Aggregates

ISO standard defines five aggregate functions:
COUNT returns number of values in specified
column.
SUMreturns sum of values in specified column.
AVG returns average of values in specified column.
MIN returns smallest value in specified column.
MAXreturns largest value in specified column.
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SELECT Statement Aggregates

Each operates on a single column of a
table and returns a single value.
COUNT, MIN, and MAX apply to numeric
and non-numeric fields, but SUM and AVG
may be used on numeric fields only.
Apart from COUNT(*), each function
eliminates nulls first and operates only on
remaining non-null values.
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SELECT Statement Aggregates

COUNT(*) counts all rows of a table,
regardless of whether nulls or duplicate
values occur.
Can use DISTINCT before column name
to eliminate duplicates.
DISTINCT has no effect with MIN/MAX,
but may have with SUM/AVG.

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SELECT Statement Aggregates

Aggregate functions can be used only in SELECT
list and in HAVING clause.
If SELECT list includes an aggregate function and
there is no GROUP BY clause, SELECT list
cannot reference a column out with an aggregate
function. For example, the following is illegal:
SELECT staffNo, COUNT(salary)
FROM Staff;

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Example: Use of COUNT(*)

How many properties cost more than 350
per month to rent?
SELECT COUNT(*) AS count
FROM PropertyForRent
WHERE rent > 350;

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Example: Use of
COUNT(DISTINCT)
How many different properties viewed in
May 01?
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT propertyNo) AS
count
FROM Viewing
WHERE viewDate BETWEEN 1-May-01AND
31-May-01;

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Example: Use of COUNT and SUM

Find number of Managers and sum of
their salaries.
SELECT COUNT(staffNo) AS count,
SUM(salary) AS sum
FROM Staff
WHERE position = Manager;

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Example: Use of MIN, MAX,

AVG
Find minimum, maximum,
average staff salary.

and

SELECT MIN(salary) AS min,

MAX(salary) AS max,
AVG(salary) AS avg
FROM Staff;

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SELECT Statement - Grouping

Use GROUP BY clause to get sub-totals.
SELECT and GROUP BY closely integrated:
each item in SELECT list must be single-valued
per group, and SELECT clause may only
contain:

column names
aggregate functions
constants
expression involving combinations of the above.

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SELECT Statement - Grouping

All column names in SELECT list must appear in
GROUP BY clause unless name is used only in
an aggregate function.
If WHERE is used with GROUP BY, WHERE is
applied first, then groups are formed from
remaining rows satisfying predicate.
ISO considers two nulls to be equal for purposes
of GROUP BY.

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Example: Use of GROUP BY

Find number of staff in each branch and
their total salaries.
SELECT branchNo, COUNT(staffNo) AS
count,
SUM(salary) AS sum
FROM Staff
GROUP BY branchNo
ORDER BY branchNo;

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Example: Use of GROUP BY

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Restricted Groupings HAVING

clause
HAVING clause is designed for use with GROUP
BY to restrict groups that appear in final result
table.
Similar to WHERE, but WHERE filters individual
rows whereas HAVING filters groups.
Column names in HAVING clause must also
appear in the GROUP BY list or be contained
within an aggregate function.

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Example Use of HAVING

For each branch with more than 1 member of staff,
find number of staff in each branch and sum of
their salaries.
SELECT branchNo,
COUNT(staffNo) AS count,

SUM(salary) AS sum
FROM Staff
GROUP BY branchNo
HAVING COUNT(staffNo) > 1
ORDER BY branchNo;

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Example: Use of HAVING

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Subqueries
Some SQL statements can have
SELECT embedded within them.

A subselect can be used in WHERE and

HAVING clauses of an outer SELECT,
where it is called a subquery or nested
query.
Subselects may also appear in INSERT,
UPDATE, and DELETE statements
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Example: Subquery with

Equality
List staff who work in branch at 163 Main
St.
SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, position
FROM Staff
WHERE branchNo =
(SELECT branchNo
FROM Branch
WHERE street = 163 Main St);

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Example: Subquery with

Equality
Inner SELECT finds branch number for
branch at 163 Main St (B003).
Outer SELECT then retrieves details of all
staff who work at this branch.
Outer SELECT then becomes:
SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, position
FROM Staff
WHERE branchNo = B003;
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Example: Subquery with

Equality

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Example: Subquery with Aggregate

List all staff whose salary is greater than
the average salary, and show by how
much.
SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, position,
salary (SELECT AVG(salary) FROM Staff) As SalDiff
FROM Staff
WHERE salary >(SELECT AVG(salary)
FROM Staff);

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Example: Subquery with Aggregate

Cannot write WHERE salary > AVG(salary)
Instead, use subquery to find average salary
(17000), and then use outer SELECT to find
those staff with salary greater than this:
SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, position,
salary 17000 As salDiff
FROM Staff
WHERE salary > 17000;

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Example: Subquery with Aggregate

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Subquery Rules
ORDER BY clause may not be used in a subquery
(although it may be used in outermost SELECT).
Subquery SELECT list must consist of a single
column name or expression, except for subqueries
that use EXISTS.
By default, column names refer to table name in
FROM clause of subquery. Can refer to a table in
FROM using an alias.
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Subquery Rules
When subquery is an operand in a
comparison, subquery must appear on
right-hand side.
A subquery may not be used as an
operand in an expression.

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Example: Nested subquery: use of

IN
List properties handled by staff at 163 Main
St.
SELECT propertyNo, street, city, postcode, type, rooms, rent
FROM PropertyForRent
WHERE staffNo IN
(SELECT staffNo
FROM Staff
WHERE branchNo =
(SELECT branchNo
FROM Branch
WHERE street = 163 Main St));
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Example: Nested subquery: use of

IN

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Multi-Table Queries
Can use subqueries provided result columns come from
same table.
If result columns come from more than one table must
use a join.
To perform join, include more than one table in FROM
clause.
Use comma as separator and typically include WHERE
clause to specify join column(s).
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Multi-Table Queries
Also possible to use an alias for a table
named in FROM clause.
Alias is separated from table name with a
space.
Alias can be used to qualify column
names when there is ambiguity
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Example: Simple Join

List names of all clients who have viewed
a property along with any comment
supplied.
SELECT c.clientNo, fName, lName,
propertyNo, comment
FROM Client c, Viewing v
WHERE c.clientNo = v.clientNo;

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Example: Simple Join

Equivalent
algebra.

to

equi-join

in

relational

Only those rows from both tables that

have identical values in the clientNo
columns (c.clientNo = v.clientNo) are
included in result.

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Example: Simple Join

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Alternative JOIN Constructs

SQL provides alternative ways to specify joins:
FROM Client c JOIN Viewing v ON c.clientNo =
v.clientNo
FROM Client JOIN Viewing USING clientNo
FROM Client NATURAL JOIN Viewing

In each case, FROM replaces original FROM

and WHERE. However, first produces table with
two identical clientNo columns.
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Example: Sorting a join

For each branch, list numbers and

names of staff who manage properties,
and properties they manage.
SELECT s.branchNo, s.staffNo, fName,
lName,propertyNo
FROM Staff s, PropertyForRent p
WHERE s.staffNo = p.staffNo
ORDER BY s.branchNo, s.staffNo, propertyNo;

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Example: Sorting a join

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Example: Three Table Join

For each branch, list staff who manage
properties, including city in which branch
is located and properties they manage.
SELECT b.branchNo, b.city, s.staffNo, fName,
lName,
propertyNo
FROM Branch b, Staff s, PropertyForRent p
WHERE b.branchNo = s.branchNo AND
s.staffNo = p.staffNo
ORDER BY b.branchNo, s.staffNo, propertyNo;
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Example: Three Table Join

Alternative formulation for FROM and WHERE:

FROM (Branch b JOIN Staff s USING branchNo) AS
bs JOIN PropertyForRent p USING staffNo
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Example : Multiple Grouping

Columns

Find number of properties handled by

each staff member.
SELECT s.branchNo, s.staffNo, COUNT(*) AS
count
FROM Staff s, PropertyForRent p
WHERE s.staffNo = p.staffNo
GROUP BY s.branchNo, s.staffNo
ORDER BY s.branchNo, s.staffNo;
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Example : Multiple Grouping

Columns

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Computing a Join
Procedure for generating results of a join are:
1. Form Cartesian product of the tables named in
FROM clause.
2. If there is a WHERE clause, apply the search
condition to each row of the product table, retaining
those rows that satisfy the condition.
3. For each remaining row, determine value of each
item in SELECT list to produce a single row in result
table.
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Computing a Join
4. If DISTINCT has been specified, eliminate
any duplicate rows from the result table.

5. If there is an ORDER BY clause, sort result

table as required.
SQL provides special format of SELECT for
Cartesian product:
SELECT [DISTINCT | ALL] {* | columnList}
FROM Table1 CROSS JOIN Table2
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EXISTS and NOT EXISTS

EXISTS and NOT EXISTS are for use only with
subqueries.
Produce a simple true/false result.
True if and only if there exists at least one row in result
table returned by subquery.
False if subquery returns an empty result table.
NOT EXISTS is the opposite of EXISTS.
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EXISTS and NOT EXISTS

As (NOT) EXISTS check only for existence
or non-existence of rows in subquery result
table, subquery can contain any number of
columns.
Common for subqueries following (NOT)
EXISTS to be of form:
(SELECT * ...)
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Example: Query using EXISTS

Find all staff who work in a London branch.
SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, position
FROM Staff s
WHERE EXISTS
(SELECT *
FROM Branch b
WHERE s.branchNo = b.branchNo AND
city = London);

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Example: Query using EXISTS

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Example: Query using EXISTS

Note, search condition s.branchNo = b.branchNo is
necessary to consider correct branch record for each
member of staff.
If omitted, would get all staff records listed out because
subquery:
SELECT * FROM Branch WHERE city=London

would always be true and query would be:

SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, position FROM Staff
WHERE true;
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Example: Query using EXISTS

Could also write this query using join

construct:
SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, position
FROM Staff s, Branch b
WHERE s.branchNo = b.branchNo AND
city = London;

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INSERT
dataValueList must match columnList as
follows:
number of items in each list must be same;
must be direct correspondence in position of
items in two lists;
data type of each item in dataValueList must
be compatible with data type of corresponding
column.

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Example: INSERT VALUES

Insert a new row into Staff table

supplying data for all columns.
INSERT INTO Staff
VALUES (SG16, Alan, Brown, Assistant,
M, Date1957-05-25, 8300, B003);

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Example: INSERT using

Defaults
Insert a new row into Staff table supplying
data for all mandatory columns.
INSERT INTO Staff (staffNo, fName, lName,
position, salary, branchNo)
VALUES (SG44, Anne, Jones,
Assistant, 8100, B003);

Or
INSERT INTO Staff
VALUES (SG44, Anne, Jones, Assistant, NULL,
NULL, 8100, B003);
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INSERT SELECT
Second form of INSERT allows multiple
rows to be copied from one or more tables
to another:
INSERT INTO TableName [ (columnList) ]
SELECT ...

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Example: INSERT SELECT

Assume there is a table StaffPropCount
that contains names of staff and number
of properties they manage:
StaffPropCount(staffNo, fName, lName, propCnt)

Populate StaffPropCount using Staff and

PropertyForRent tables.
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Example: INSERT SELECT

INSERT INTO StaffPropCount
(SELECT s.staffNo, fName, lName, COUNT(*)
FROM Staff s, PropertyForRent p
WHERE s.staffNo = p.staffNo
GROUP BY s.staffNo, fName, lName)
UNION
(SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, 0
FROM Staff
WHERE staffNo NOT IN
(SELECT DISTINCT staffNo
FROM PropertyForRent));
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Example: INSERT SELECT

If second part of UNION is omitted, excludes

those staff who currently do not manage any
properties.
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UPDATE
UPDATE TableName
SET columnName1 = dataValue1
[, columnName2 = dataValue2...]
[WHERE searchCondition]

TableName can be name of a base table

or an updatable view.
SET clause specifies names of one or
more columns that are to be updated.
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UPDATE
WHERE clause is optional:
if omitted, named columns are updated for all
rows in table;
if specified, only those rows that satisfy
searchCondition are updated.

New dataValue(s) must be compatible

with data type for corresponding column.

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Example: UPDATE All Rows

UPDATE Staff
SET salary = salary*1.03;

Give all Managers a 5% pay increase.

UPDATE Staff
SET salary = salary*1.05
WHERE position = Manager;

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Example: UPDATE Multiple

Columns

Promote David Ford (staffNo=SG14)

to Manager and change his salary to
18,000.
UPDATE Staff
SET position = Manager, salary = 18000
WHERE staffNo = SG14;

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DELETE
DELETE FROM TableName
[WHERE searchCondition]

TableName can be name of a base table or an

updatable view.
searchCondition is optional; if omitted, all rows
are deleted from table. This does not delete
table. If search_condition is specified, only
those rows that satisfy condition are deleted.

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Example: DELETE Specific Rows

Delete all viewings that relate to property
PG4.
DELETE FROM Viewing
WHERE propertyNo = PG4;

Delete all records from the Viewing table.

DELETE FROM Viewing;
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Quick Review Questions

List the objectives of SQL.

Describe the importance of SQL.
What are literals?
List the SQL commands used for a range search
condition.
List the SQL command used for pattern matching.
List the SQL command used for single column ordering.
Name all possible aggregates used in a SELECT
statement.
List the rules used in subqueries.
Differentiate between EXISTS and NOT EXISTS.

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Summary

Basic DML commands.

How to update database using INSERT,
UPDATE, and DELETE.

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Question and Answer Session

Q&A
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Next Session

Database Security

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SQL: Data Manipulation

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