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ADVANCED STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Learning outcomes
LO1- Critically analyse the design process and apply it to complex
structural elements using different building materials and under
different environmental and loading conditions.
LO2- Produce and critically review safe and economical design in
accordance with the EC codes of practice.
LO3- Design more advanced structural elements in reinforced and
pre-stressed concrete, masonry, steel structures and pavement
engineering for roads and highways.
LO4- Produce and critically review safe and economical designs of
structures in accordance with the current codes of practice.

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6102BEUG- Lecture Note:

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Introduction to Eurocodes
The Eurocodes are a family of ten European codes of practice for the
design of building and civil engineering structures in concrete, steel,
timber and masonry, amongst other materials.
Structural Eurocodes

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EN 1990, the head Eurocode, is the worlds first material independent

design code and provides guidance on determining the design value of
actions and combination of actions, including partial safety factors for
actions. EN 1991 provides characteristic values of actions needed for
design.
In order to produce documents which are (a) concise, (b) describe the
overall aims of design and (c) provide specific guidance as to how
these aims can be achieved in practice, the material in the Eurocodes
is divided into Principles and Application rules.
Principles comprise general statements, definitions, requirements and
models for which no alternative is permitted. Principles are indicated
by the letter P after the clause number. The Application rules are
generally recognised rules which follow the statements and satisfy the
requirements given in the principles. The absence of the letter P after
the clause number indicates an Application rule. The use of alternative
application rules to those recommended in the Eurocode is permitted
provided it can be shown that the alternatives are at least equivalent
and do not adversely affect other design requirements. It is worth
noting, however, that if an alternative Application rule is used the
resulting design will not be deemed Eurocode compliant.
Possible differences in construction material/products and design and
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e.g. wind and snow loading, has meant that some parameters, e.g.

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Characteristic Actions
(Loads)
Refer BS EN 1991- EC1
Permanent Actions
Include self(G
weight,
all
k)

Variable Actions (Qk)

Weights of
occupants, furniture
or machinery. The
pressure of wind,
the weight of snow,
and of retained
earth or water, and
the forces caused by
thermal expansion
or shrinkage of the
concrete.

architectural
components such as
exterior cladding ,
partitions and ceilings.
Equipment and static
machinery and all
permanent fixtures.

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6102BEUG- Lecture Note:

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Design values of
actions

In general, the design value of an action is obtained by multiplying

the representative value by the appropriate partial safety factor for
actions.
The maximum values of partial safety factors for permanent and
variable actions recommended in EC1 are 1.35 and 1.5 respectively.
The comparable values in BS 8110 are 1.4 and 1.6.
It can also be seen that the partial safety factors for actions depend
on a number of other aspects including the category of limit state
as well as the effect of the action on the design situation under
consideration.

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6102BEUG- Lecture Note:

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0 - accompanying factor for combination value

1 - accompanying factor for frequent value
2 - accompanying factor for quasi-permanent
value
- Reduction factor for unfavorable permanent
actions
recommended value is 0.925 in UK national
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Design of steel structures

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Laterally unrestrained
Symbols beams
Refer clause 1.6 of EC3
Member axes ( Cl. 1.6.7, EC3)

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Basis of design
Like BS 5950, EC3 is based on the limit state method and for design
purposes principally considers two categories of limit states: ultimate
and serviceability. A separate (third) category of durability is also
mentioned in clause 4 of EC3 which covers the limit states of
corrosion, mechanical wear and fatigue.
The ultimate limit states (ULS) are those associated with collapse, or
with other forms of structural failure which may endanger the safety of
people while serviceability limit states (SLS) concern states beyond
which specified service criteria, for example the functioning of the
structure or member, the comfort of people and appearance of the
structure, are no longer met (clauses 3.3 and 3.4 of EN 1990).
Nominal strengths (Cl. 3.2)
The Table below shows the steel grades and associated nominal values
of yield strength and ultimate tensile strength for hot rolled steel
sections.

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Partial factors, m (Cl 6.1, EC3)

Values of partial factor applied to characteristic values of resistances
are given in clause 6.1 of EC3. The factor m assumes different values
depending on the type of resistance being verified as indicated below.
resistance of cross section
resistance of member to instability
resistance of cross-section to fracture
Material coefficients ( Cl. 3.2.5, EC3)
Modulus of elasticity (E)
Shear modulus (G)
N/mm2
Poissons ratio in elastic stage ()
coefficient of linear thermal expansion
100 0C)
Density ()
= 7850
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M0 = 1.00
M1 = 1.00
M2 = 1.25

= 210 000 N/mm2

= E/2(1+) 81 000
= 0.3
= 12 x 10-6 K-1 (for T
kg/m3

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Classification of cross-sections (Cl 5.5, EC3)

Class 1 cross-sections: plastic in BS 5950
Class 2 cross-sections: compact in BS 5950
Class 3 cross-sections: semi-compact in BS 5950
Class 4 cross-sections: slender in BS 5950
Classification of a cross section depends upon the proportions of each
of its compression elements. The highest (least favourable) class
number should be quoted for particular section.

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6102BEUG- Lecture Note:

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Resistance of the web to transverse forces (Cl. 6, EC3-5)

EC 3-5 distinguishes between two types of forces applied through a
flange to the web:
(1) Forces resisted by shear in the web (loading types (a) and
(c))
(2) Forces transferred through the web directly to other flange
(loading type (b))

For loading types (a) and (c) the web is likely to fail as a result of
(i) crushing of the web close to the flange accompanied by
yielding of the flange, the combined effect sometimes referred to as web
crushing.
(ii) localised buckling and crushing of the web beneath the
flange, the combined effect sometimes referred to as web crippling.
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For loading type (b) the web is likely to fail as a result of

(i) web crushing
(ii) buckling of the web over most of the depth of the member

Provided that the compression flange is adequately restrained in the

lateral direction, the design resistance of webs of rolled beams under
transverse forces can be determined in accordance to the clause 6 of EC
3-5
Design resistance of webs to local buckling

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In which
= is the reduction factor due to local buckling calculated as
discussed below
= is the effective loaded length, appropriate to the length of
stiff bearing Ss . According to clause 6.3 of EC 3-5, Ss should be taken as
the distance over which the applied load is effectively distributed at a
slope of 1:1 , but Ss hw
Reduction factor
According to clause 6.4 ,

For webs without longitudinal stiffeners kF is obtained from Fig 6.1 EC3-5
and ly is obtained as follows
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Effective loaded length

According to clause 6.5 for loading types (a) and (b) the effective loaded
length is given by

For loading type (c) ly is taken as the smallest value obtained from
following two equations

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Interaction between shear force and bending moment

According to clause 7 of EC3-5, where the web is also subject to bending
the combined effect should satisfy the following

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6102BEUG- Lecture Note:

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Lateral Torsional Buckling of Beams (Cl. 6.3.2, EC3)

In order to prevent the possibility of a beam failure due to lateral
torsional buckling, the designer needs to ensure that the buckling
resistance moment, Mb,Rd exceeds the design moment, MEd
MEd/Mb,Rd 1.0

Buckling Factor LT
LT is the reduction factor for lateral torsional buckling. Two methods of
calculating LT are provided in EC3 as follows
(1)General case mentioned in clause 6.3.2.2 is applicable to all members
of constant cross-section
(2)The approach detailed in clause 6.3.2.3 is applicable to rolled sections
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(1)General case (cl 6.3.2.2 EC3)

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(2) For rolled sections (cl 6.3.2.3 EC3)

In order to take account of the

bending moment curve between
points of lateral restraint the
reduction factor LT may be
modified as,

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6102BEUG- Lecture Note:

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Example 01
The figure shows a simply supported beam and cantilever with uniformly
distributed loads applied to it. Using grade S275 steel and assuming full
lateral restraint, select and check a suitable beam section.

Example 02
Check the suitability of 356 x 171 x 51 kg/m UB section in S275 steel
loaded by uniformly distributed loading gk = 8kN/m and qk = 6kN/m as
shown below. Assume that the beam is laterally and torsionally restrained
only at the supports and that the beam sits on 100mm bearings at each
end. Ignore self weight of beam.

Example 03
Repeat Example 02, but this time assume that the beam is laterally and
torsionally restrained at mid-span and at the supports.
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