FIRST GENERATION

OPTICAL NETWORK
SONET/SDH

First generation optical

Network
In the first generation, optics was used for
transmission and to provide capacity.
Optical fiber provides lower bit error rates
and higher capacities than copper cables.
All the switching and other intelligent
network functions were handled by
electronics.
e.g SONET, SDH, FDDI, fiber channel

Multiplexing Techniques

Many lower-speed data streams are multiplexed into a higher-speed

stream at the transmission bit rate by means of electronic time division
multiplexing (TDM)

Multiplexing Techniques

transmit data simultaneously at multiple carrier wavelengths

over a fiber.
these wavelengths do not interfere with each other, they are
kept sufficiently far apart.

SONET - Synchronous Optical Networks

SONET is the TDM optical network standard for North
America. It is called SDH (Synchronous Digital
Hierarchy) in Europe and Japan and
Existing infrastructure of SONET and SDH is based
pleiosynchronous digital hierarchy (PDH)

 Analog voice channel bandwidth 4 kHz

sampled at
8 kHz
quantized at 8 bits/sec
So, basic bit rate = 8 8 = 64 kb/s
Digital signal standard is multiples of 64
kb/s
Digital Signal DS0 = 64 kb/s
DS1 = 1554 kb/s ( 24 voice
channels)
= 1.55 Mb/s

Features of SONET
TDM system
Sophisticated multiplexing scheme
Easy to extract low stream data ( complete
demultiplexing not required use ADM)
All the clocks in the network are perfectly
synchronized
Bit rates are integral multiples of basic bit
rate
Extensive traffic monitoring
Standard optical interfaces
Optical protection schemes incorporated
into the network

BIT RATE STANDARS

SONET basic bit rate 51.84 Mb/s - STS-1

STS -3 ----- 155.52 Mb/s (51.84 3)
STS-12 ------ 622.08 Mb/s (51.84 12 )
STS-N ------- 51.84 N Mb/s
N = 1, 3, 12, 24, 48 and 192 ( ANSI T1.105 standard)

SDH basic data rate is 155.52 Mb/s ; Synchronous Transport

Module, level 1STM 1 or STM-1 is equivalent to STS-3
STM -1 --------- 155.52 Mb/s
STM 4 ---------- 622.08 Mb/s
(155.52 4)
STM M ---------- 155.52 M Mb/s
M = 1, 4, 16, 64
N=3M

SONET frame
A SONET frame consists of some overhead
bytes called the transport overhead and the
payload bytes.
The payload data is carried in the
synchronous payload envelope (SPE).
The SPE includes a set of additional path
overhead bytes that are inserted at the
source node and remain with the data until it
reaches its destination node.
One of these bytes is the path trace, which
identifies the SPE and can be used to verify
connectivity in the network.

Frame Format
9 rows by 90 columns 810 octets in the frame.
Frame is transmitted from left to right, by row.
Frames are transmitted 8,000 times per second,
every 125 seconds.
STS-1 bit rate is therefore 51.84 Mbps (810
octets x 8,000 times per second x 8 bits per
octet).
This lowest level SONET signal is called a
Synchronous Transport Signal, level 1 (STS-1).
Once the scrambler is applied, it is known as an
Optical Channel, level 1 (OC-1).

Structure of STS-1 frame

STS-1=(90*8bits/row)(9rows/frame) *125 s/frame 51.84 Mb/s

Fig. 12-6: Basic STS-N SONET frame

STS-N signal has a bit rate equal to N times 51.84 Mb/s

Ex: STS-3 155.52 Mb/s

Problem;
Find the number of voice channels that could be multiplexed to STS 192 SONET signal.
Ans :
DS0
64 kb/s
1 voice channel
DS1
1.544 kb/s 24 voice channel
VT 1.5
4
VT group
7
SPE STS-1
196
STS-192

Virtual Tributary 1.5 -> 24 Voice channel

Virtual Tributary can carry 4 24 = 96 Voice channel
STS-1 SPE can carry 7 96 = 672 Voice channel
STS-192

can carry 192 672= 129024 Voice channel

Also draw the mapping of asynchronous streams in SONET ( fig. 6.2 in optical networks)

Problem:
64 ATM streams at 48.384 Mb/s and 32 ATM streams at 149.760
Mb/s are mapped into STS-192 SONET stream. The rest of the
SONET stream is mapped with DS1 streams carrying voice
channels. How many voice are transmitted by the DS1 stream.
Ans:
64 ATM streams at 48.384 Mb/s occupy 64 STS-1 stream
32 ATM streams at 149.760 Mb/s occupy 32 STS-3 stream
or
32*3 = 96 STS-1
Total STS-1 stream = 64+96 = 160 STS-1
160 STS-1 are occupied by ATM streams ( mapped into STS-192
SONET stream)
Free space = 192 160 = 32 STS-1 streams
Each STS-1 stream can carry 4*7=28 DS1 signal
Each DS1 signal carries 24 voice channels.
So, Total voice channel transmitted by the DS1 signal
28*24*32 = 21504 voice channels

DS1
VT 1.5 SPE
1.544 mb/s

VT 1-5
4
VT group

ATM
48.384 Mb/s
ATM
149.760
Mb/s

STS-1SPE

STS-1
STS-N

STS-3 SPE

STS-1

SONET/SDH Layers

SONET/SDH Layers
The SONET layer consists of four sub layers
path layer- responsible for end-to-end
connections between nodes
Line layer
- multiplexes a number of path-layer
connections onto a single link between two
nodes
- responsible for performing certain types of
protection switching to restore service in the
event of a line failure
Section layer -. Terminated at each regenerator
in the network.
physical layer - responsible for actual
transmission of bits across the fiber.

SONET/SDH Physical Layer

short reach - Intraoffice connections (I) corresponding to
distances of less than approximately 2 km
intermediate reach - Short-haul interoffice connections (S)
corresponding to distances of approximately 15 km at
1310 nm operating wavelength and 40 km at 1550 nm
operating wavelength
long reach - Long-haul interoffice connections (L)
corresponding to distances of approximately 40 km at
1310 nm operating wavelength and 80 km at 1550 nm
operating wavelength
Very-long-haul interoffice connections (V) corresponding to
distances of approximately 60 km at 1310 nm operating
wavelength and 120 km at 1550 nm operating wavelength
Ultra-long-haul interoffice connections (U) corresponding
to distances of approximately 160 km

SONET Infrastructure
Ring
Point to point
Linear

UPSR- unidirectional path-switched

rings
BLSR-bidirectional line-switched rings
TM Terminal Multiplexer
DCS - digital crossconnect

SONET Add Drop Multiplexers

ADM is a fully synchronous, byte oriented

device, that can be used add/drop OC subchannels within an OC-N signal
Ex: OC-3 and OC-12 signals can be individually
added/dropped from an OC-48 carrier

SONET/SDH Rings
SONET/SDH are usually configured in
ring architecture to create loop diversity
by self healing
2 or 4 fiber between nodes
Unidirectional/bidirectional traffic flow
Protection via line switching (entire OC-N
channel is moved) or path switching (sub
channel is moved)

Network Survivability
Basic concepts:
Working paths carry traffic under normal
operation
protect paths provide an alternate path to
carry the traffic in case of failures
single failures - Single-component failures, e.g
transceiver failure, lead to single-link failures
A fiber cut can lead to multiple link failures at
the client layer if fibers carry multiple
wavelengths

 Links that fail together due to a

single failure event are referred to as
shared risk link groups (SRLGs).
Single switch or router failures also
lead to SRLGs since all links incident
to the switch or router will fail.

Protection schemes
Dedicated protection - each working
connection is assigned its own dedicated
bandwidth in the network over which it can be
rerouted in case of a failure.
In Shared protection, we make use of the fact
that not all working connections in the
network fail
By careful design, multiple working connections
can share protection their bandwidth. This
helps reduce the amount of bandwidth needed
in the network for protection.

 Nonrevertive protection scheme:

the traffic remains on the protect path
until it is manually switched back onto the
original working path, usually by a user
through the network management system.
Revertive protection scheme
once the working path is repaired, the
traffic is automatically switched back from
the protect path onto the working path.

 unidirectional protection switching:

each direction of traffic is handled
independent of the other.
in the event of a single fiber cut, only one
direction of traffic is switched over to the
protection fiber, and the other direction
remains on the original working fiber.

bidirectional protection switching:

both directions are switched over to the
protection fibers.
the switching becomes bidirectional by
default because both directions of traffic are
lost when a fiber is cut

In the event of failure the traffic is

routed by
path switching: the connection is
rerouted end to end from its source to its
destination along an alternate path.
span switching: the connection is rerouted
on a spare link between the nodes
adjacent to the failure.
ring switching: the connection is rerouted
on a ring between the nodes adjacent to
the failure.

PROTECTION IN SONET/SDH
Protection in Point-to-Point Links:
1 + 1 protection:
traffic is transmitted simultaneously on two
separate fibers from the source to the destination.
the destination simply selects one of the two
fibers for reception.
If that fiber is cut, the destination simply switches
over to the other fiber and continues to receive
data.
This form of protection is very fast and requires no
signaling protocol between the two ends.

1:1 Protection:
traffic is transmitted over only one fiber at a time,
through the working fiber.
If that fiber is cut, the source and destination both
switch over to the other protection fiber.
APS protocol is required for signaling between the
source and destination. This is added overhead which
slows down the process.
advantages over 1 + 1 protection
under normal operation, the protection fiber is unused.
Therefore, it can be used to transmit lower-priority
traffic. This lower-priority traffic must be discarded if
the working fiber is cut.
1:1 protection can be extended so as to share a single
protection fiber among many working fibers.

(a) 1 + 1 protection:

(b) 1:1 protection

(c) 1:N protection, which is a more generalized form of 1:1 protection,

where N working paths share a single protection path.

Protection in Self-Healing Rings

carrier infrastructure today uses SONET/SDH
rings.
These rings are called self-healing because
they incorporate protection mechanisms that
automatically detect failures and reroute
traffic away from failed links and nodes onto
other routes rapidly.
The rings are implemented using
SONET/SDH add/drop multiplexers
ADMs selectively drop and add traffic
from/to the ring as well as protect the traffic
against failures.

Types of ring architectures:

A unidirectional ring carries working traffic in only
one direction of the ring.
two-fiber unidirectional path-switched rings
(UPSR)
A bidirectional ring carries working traffic in both
directions.
four-fiber bidirectional line-switched rings
(BLSR/4),
two-fiber bidirectional line-switched rings (BLSR/2).

A unidirectional path-switched ring (UPSR)

One of the fibers is considered the working fiber and the other the protection fiber.
Traffic is transmitted simultaneously on the working fiber in the clockwise direction
and on the protection fiber in the counterclockwise direction.
Protection is done at the path layer.

Bidirectional Line-switched ring (BLSR/4)

Span switching in BLSR/4

Ring switching in BLSR/4

Comparison of different types of self-healing

rings.

Ring Interconnection and Dual Homing

Dual homing
Dual homing makes use of two hub nodes to
perform the interconnection
For traffic going between the rings, connections
are set up between the originating node on one
ring and both of the hub nodes.
if one of the hub nodes fails, the other node can
take over, and the end user does not see any
disruption to traffic.
if there is a cable cut between the two hub nodes,
alternate protection paths are now available to
restore the traffic.

2-Fiber Unidirectional Path Switched

Ring

Node 1-2
OC-3
Node 2-4; OC-3

Ex: Total capacity OC-12 may be divided to

four OC-3 streams

2-Fiber UPSR
Rx compares
the signals
received via
the primary
and protection
paths and picks
the best one
Constant
protection and
automatic
switching

All secondary fiber left for protection

4-Fiber Bi-directional Line

Switched Ring (BLSR)

Node 13; 1p, 2p

7p, 8p

31;

BLSR Fiber Fault Reconfiguration

In case of failure, the secondary fibers

between only the affected nodes (3 & 4) are
used, the other links remain unaffected

BLSR Node Fault Reconfiguration

If both primary and secondary are cut, still the

connection is not lost, but both the primary and
secondary fibers of the entire ring is occupied