Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function

Chapter 40
Basic Principles of Animal

Form and Function
What defines
an animal?
Eukaryotic
Multi-cellular
Differentiated
Heterotrophic
Internal digestion
(usually)
Form a blastula during
early embryonic
development
Early embryonic development in

animals
Diverse Animal Forms; Common

Challenges
Challenges common to
all animal life:
Obtaining oxygen
Obtaining nutrition
Reproduction
Fighting infection
Maintaining body temp
Correlating form and

function
4
Challenges to survival of organisms

Energy acquisition photosynthesis,
digestion
Exchange of materials with the
environment gas exchange,
nutrient acquisition, waste disposal
Internal transport of materials
vascular systems
Maintaining water-solute balance
osmosis, membrane transport,
excretory systems
Communication cell-cell contact,
hormones, nervous systems
Animal Form and Function: A&P

Anatomy:
The study of the structure of an organism
Physiology:
The study of the functions of an organism
RememberEvolution by natural selection

can fit structure to function over many
generations!
6
Animal Form and Function: Limits

What limits the
range of animal
forms?
Physical laws that
govern
Strength
Diffusion
Movement
Heat exchange
Examplehow properties of water
limit body shape of fast swimmers.

Convergent evolution
Animal Form and Function: Limits

What limits on the range of animal forms?
Exchange of materials with the environment
Rates of exchange proportional to surface
area
Amount of material needed to be
exchange proportional to volume
How do animals cope with this challenge???

8
Exchange with the Environment

A single-celled organims
Diffusion
(a) Single cell
Has a sufficient
surface area of
plasma
membrane to
service its
entire volume of
cytoplasm
9

Simple multicellular
organisms
two cell layers thick!
Simple sac body plan
(gastrovascular cavity)
Simple flat body plan
Must always have access to
a suitable aqueous
environment
10

Organisms with
more complex body
plans (decreased outer
surface to total volume)
Have highly folded internal
surfaces specialized for
exchanging materials
These surfaces are usually
internal but are connected to the
environment by opening (e.g.
mouth).
11
12
The spaces between animal cells

are filled with interstitial fluid.
Fig.
42.16
Provides isotonic
environment
Needed for the
exchange of
nutrients, gases
and wastes.
Fig. 42.16
Circulatory fluid ex. Blood

enclosed space
Complex Body Plans: Pros vs. Cons

Cons
Greater challenge in
exchanging materials
with the environment
Pros
Outer protective
coverings
Large muscles allow
for rapid movement
Internal digestive
organs break down
food gradually
Maintenance of stable
internal environment
Especially for land
organisms
15
Levels of Organization
Cells
Tissues
Organs
Organ Systems
16
Hierarchical Organization of Body

Plans
Most animals are composed of specialized
cells organized into tissues that have different
functions
Tissues make up organs, which together make
up organ systems (check out Table 40.1)
Tissue Structure and Function

Different tissues have different structures that
are suited to their functions (form follows
function)
Tissues are classified into four main categories:
Epithelial
Connective
Muscle
Nervous
Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue covers the outside of the body and
lines the organs and cavities within the body
Has tight junctions between cells. It contains cells that
are closely joined Therefore, can act as a barrier
to/interface with the outside.
Three types:
Columnar
Cuboidal
Squamous
Connective Tissue
Connective tissue mainly binds and
structurally supports other tissues
It contains sparsely packed cells scattered
throughout an extracellular matrix (non-cellular
stuff)
key a non-cellular matrix!
The matrix consists of fibers in a liquid, jellylike,
or solid foundation
Connective Tissue
Types/examples
Loose connective tissue

Fibrous connective tissue
Bone
Cartilage
Adipose
Blood
22
Muscle Tissue
Muscle tissue consists of long cells called
muscle fibers, which contract in response to
nerve signals
It is divided in the vertebrate body into three
types:
Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, is
responsible for voluntary movement
Smooth muscle is responsible for involuntary
body activities
Cardiac muscle is responsible for contraction
of the heart
Figure 40.5ca
Muscle Tissue
Skeletal muscle
Nuclei
Muscle
fiber
Sarcomere
100 m
Smooth muscle
Nucleus
Muscle fibers
Cardiac muscle
25 m
Function: Body movements
Nucleus
Intercalated disk
50 m
Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue senses stimuli and transmits
signals throughout the animal
Nervous tissue contains:
Neurons, or nerve cells, that transmit nerve
impulses
Glial cells, or glia, that help nourish, insulate,
and replenish neurons
Nervous Tissue
Senses stimuli and transmits signals

throughout the animal
Coordination and
Control
Parts of the body need
to work together!
Two systems!
o Endocrine
systems
o Nervous
Slow
Fig. 40-6
Fast
Managing Internal Environment

40
River otter (temperature regulator)
Vs.
Conforming
Uses internal
measurements to
regulate temperature
Independent of outside
environment (sort of)
20
10
Body temperature (C)
Regulating 30
Largemouth bass
(temperature conformer)
10
20
30
40
Ambient (environmental) temperature (C)
28
Fig. 40-7
Endotherms regulate their body

temperature internally using metabolic
heat. Ectotherms gain most of their heat
from the environment.
Birds and
mammals
Fish,
amphibian
s and
reptiles
Maintaining Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the
maintenance of a
steady-state
environment.
It is most often
controlled through
negative feedback.
The system is in
dynamic equilibrium,
fluctuating around a
set point.
30
Cellular metabolism
generates heat.
Of course, its more complicated than that
Endotherms may supplement body heat through

environmental factors like sitting in the sun.
Ectotherm body temperature does not vary if the
environmental temperature is relatively constant.
Of course, its more complicated than that

Some animals keep parts of their body warm,
while letting other parts cool (penguin feet).
Others allow their body temperature to increase
or decrease depending on the time of day
(hummingbirds and camels) or season of the
year (hibernation).
How do these polar bears stay warm?
Anatomy
Physiology
Behavior
Control of Body Temperature

Size: surface to volume ratio
Insulation: fat, feathers, fur and goosebumps
Circulatory system: control of where blood flows
Evaporative cooling: sweating, panting and
bathing
Control of Body Temperature
Behavioral responses: sun vs. shade, day vs.

night, coat vs. T-shirt
Metabolic heat production: shivering (involuntary
muscle movements) and brown fat (burns
energy to produce heat)
Internal
control of
temperature
Internal Regulation and Homeostasis

Negative Feedback (primary system)
Negative feedback
occurs when
feedback slows
or stops
processes
May bring it back
to a steady state
level!
38
Internal Regulation and Homeostasis

Positive Feedback ex. Child Birth!
Positive feedback
speeds a process
up.
Which involves a
change in some
variable that
triggers
mechanisms that
amplify the
change
39
Also see http://scienceisntfiction.blogspot.com/2011/04/negati

ve-feedback-and-blood-glucose.html
Key there is not a shortage of milk!

The process triggers an increase in
milk supply
This negative feedback system

goes back to a steady point!
40

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Chapter 40

Basic Principles of Animal

Early embryonic development in

Diverse Animal Forms; Common

Correlating form and

Challenges to survival of organisms

Animal Form and Function: A&P

RememberEvolution by natural selection

Animal Form and Function: Limits

limit body shape of fast swimmers.

Animal Form and Function: Limits

How do animals cope with this challenge???

Exchange with the Environment

(a) Single cell

Exchange with the Environment

Exchange with the Environment

Exchange with the Environment

The spaces between animal cells

Circulatory fluid ex. Blood

Complex Body Plans: Pros vs. Cons

Hierarchical Organization of Body

Tissue Structure and Function

Loose connective tissue

Function: Body movements

Senses stimuli and transmits signals

Managing Internal Environment

Body temperature (C)

Endotherms regulate their body

Of course, its more complicated than that

Endotherms may supplement body heat through

Of course, its more complicated than that

How do these polar bears stay warm?

Control of Body Temperature

Control of Body Temperature

Behavioral responses: sun vs. shade, day vs.

Internal Regulation and Homeostasis

Internal Regulation and Homeostasis

Also see http://scienceisntfiction.blogspot.com/2011/04/negati

Key there is not a shortage of milk!

This negative feedback system

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