1.

THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

Learning outcomes..

At the end of lesson, you should be able to:

Describe the formation interstitial fluid

State the composition of interstitial fluid
State the importance of interstitial fluid
Describe the fate of interstitial fluid
Describe the structure of the
lymphatic system
Explain how the lymphatic system complements the
circulatory system
Compare the content of blood,
interstitial fluid and lymph
Predict what will happen if interstitial fluid fails to return to
the circulatory system
Conceptualize the relationship between the lymphatic
system and circulatory system

Lymphatic system

The three parts of the lymphatic system are:

The lymph vessels

The lymph nodes
The lymph fluid

The functions of the system are:

Maintains fluid balance within our tissues

Transports fat (an important nutrient) absorbed from
the intestine to the bloodstream
Is a vital part of the immune system as it removes
microorganisms and other disease-causing
substances from body tissues.

The human
lymphatic
system

Lymph capillary

Lymph node

Lymph vessels begin as small closed end tubes found in the spaces between cells
within tissue.

After the tissue fluid enters the lymph capillaries (the smallest vessels) it is
referred to as
fluid.

Lymph capillaries merge to form larger lymph ducts.

lymph

Drainage area..
Right drainage area

Left drainage area

Drainage area..
Drains lymph from the
left side of the head and
neck
Left drainage area
The Left arm and the left
upper quadrant

Right drainage area

The lower trunk and

both legs

Drains lymph from the right side of

the head and neck

The right arm

Upper right quadrant of the body.

Lymph from this area flows into the

right lymphatic duct.

This duct empties the lymph intothe

right subclavian vein.

The cisterna chyli

temporarily stores
lymph as it moves
upward from the lower
areas of the body.

The thoracic
ducttransports lymph
upward to the left
lymphatic duct.

The leftlymphatic duct

What is going to happen to the lymph

fluid?

Back to the blood to become plasma

again.

Do you still remember

how the interstitial
fluid (ISF) is formed?

Arterial end of capillaries

High pressure forces water &
dissolved substances out into the
interstitial spaces
The fluid is called interstitial fluid.

Venous end of capillary

Blood absorbs 90% ISF
10% of ISF passes back into blood
circulatory system as lymph via the
lymphatic system.

Composition of interstitial
fluid (ISF)

Similar in composition in blood plasma

Do not have erythrocytes, platelet and
large protein molecules.
Consists of a water solvent containing
amino acids, sugars, fatty acids,
coenzymes, hormones,
neurotransmitters, salts, as well as
waste products from the cells.

Importance of interstitial fluid (ISF)

It forms the internal environment of the

body.
Bathes the cells and supplies them with
oxygen and nutrients.
Waste products such as CO2 and urea
diffuse out from the cells into interstitial
fluid.
Keep the body within normal range
range homeostatic process.

How the lymphatic system complements

the circulatory system

Lymph travels through the lymphatic

vessels by the contraction on the
surrounding skeletal muscles.
Lymph flow in one direction.
One end of the vessel is closed and back
flow is prevented by valves present in
the larger vessels.
Smaller lymphatic vessels join to form
larger vessels.
The vessels from the left side of the
body, the alimentary canal and the right

Cont.

It carries lymph to the left subclavian

vein and back to the bloodstream.
Right lymphatic duct transport lymphs
from the right side of the head and chest
into the right subclavian vein.

Role of Lymphatic System in Transport

Collects the ISF and returns it back to the
circulatory system
Lacteals:

1.

2.

lymphatic capillaries in the villi of the illeum

Absorbs fat and fat-soluble vitamins and transport
them to the blood circulatory system

Lymph nodes:

3.

Filter out bacteria and foreign particles (by

phagocytes)

Lymphocytes in the lymphatic tissues:

4.

Produce antibodies (aid destruction of pathogens and

the neutralization of toxins)

Comparison of the Cardiovascular and Lymphatic Systems

Cardiovascular System
(Blood)

Lymphatic System
(Lymph)

Blood is responsible for collecting Lymph is responsible for collecting

and distributing oxygen, nutrients and removing waste products left
and hormones to the tissues of
behind in the tissues.
entire body.
Blood flows in a closed continuous Lymph flows in an open circuit
loop throughout the body via the from the tissues into lymphatic
arteries, capillaries, and veins.
vessels. Once within these
vessels, lymph flows in only one
direction.
Blood is pumped.The heart
Lymph is not pumped. It passively
pumps blood into the arteries that flows from the tissues into the
carry it to all of the body. Veins
lymph capillaries. Flow within the
return blood from all parts of the
lymphatic vessels is aided by
body to the heart.
other body movements such as
deep breathing and the action of
nearby muscles and blood
vessels.

Blood consists of the liquid

plasma that transports the
red and white blood cells
and platelets.
Blood is visible and damage
to blood vessels causes
obvious signs such as
bleeding or bruising.
Blood is filtered by the
kidneys. All blood flows
through the kidneys where
waste products and excess
fluids are removed.
Necessary fluids are
returned to the
cardiovascular circulation.
Blood vessel damage or
insufficiency produces

Lymph that has been filtered

and is ready to return to the
cardiovascular system is a
clear or milky white fluid.
Lymph is invisible and
damage to the lymphatic
system is difficult to detect
until swelling occurs.
Lymph is filtered by lymph
nodes located throughout
the body. These nodes
remove some fluid and
debris. They also kill
pathogens and some cancer
cells.
Lymphatic vessel damage or
insufficiency produces

Assignment 1.6
1.

Compare the contents of blood and

lymph.
BLOOD
SIMILARITIES
LYMPH
BLOOD

DIFFERENCES
Glucose
Protein
molecules
Oxygen
Waste materials
Erythrocytes
Leucocytes
Platelets

LYMPH

1.5

Role of the circulatory system in the

bodys defence mechanisms

Learning outcomes..

At the end of lesson, you should be able to..

State another function of circulatory system besides transport
Identify the three lines of defence
mechanism of body
Describe the process of
phagocytosis
State the meaning of antigen and
antibody
State the meaning of immunity and
immunization
Relate antigen and antibody to immunity
Name and give examples of various Types of immunity
State the effects of Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
on the bodys defence mechanism
Describe the transmission of HIV
Suggest ways to prevent the spread of Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome ( AIDS)

H1N1 viruses

Leishmania donovani parasites

(photo: CDC)

Cholera bacteria

Bodys defence mechanism

Human bodies have three lines of

defence against pathogens.

First line of defence (skin, mucous

membrane)
Second line of defence (phagocytes)
Third line of defence (lymphocytes)

First line of defence

Skin

Acts as a physical barrier

Made up of dead keratinized
layer which is difficult to
penetrate
Sebaceous glands secrete
sebum which contain
lysozymes to destroy
bacteria

First line of defence

Mucous membranes

Mucus in the nasal cavity trap dust

particles and spores
Cilia (respiratory tract) sweep the trapped
particles to the pharynx.
Gastric juices (in stomach) will killed
microorganisms that enter the stomach.

Second line of defence

If the pathogens are able to get past the

first line of defence, for example, through a
cut in your skin, and an infection develops,
the second line of defence becomes active.
Some WBC such as neutrophils act as
phagocytes. They are attracted by the
chemicals produced at the sites of infection.
The phagocytes move towards the
pathogens and engulf them by
phagocytosis.

Third line of defence

Lymphocytes are WBC found in the

lymph nodes and in the blood circulatory
system.
Two types of lymphocytes:

T-lymphocytes
Attack

cells infected by pathogens or

Produce certain chemicals to coordinate
immune response

B-lymphocytes
Produce

antibodies

Cont.

Antibody protein produced by

lymphocytes in response to the presence
of an antigen.
Antigen foreign substance which
stimulates the body to produce an
immune response
Antibodies are specific in action and
promote the destruction of antigens in
different ways.

After an infection, some lymphocytes

remain in the body as memory cells.
Memory lymphocytes help to defend
the body against further infection by the
same antigen.

Types of immunity

Immunity: the ability of an organism to

defend itself against infection by
pathogens.
Types of immunity:

Active immunity (natural & artificial)

Passive immunity (natural & artificial)

Immunisation: the process by which an

individual's immune system becomes
fortified against an agent (known as the
immunogen).

Types of immunity

Acquired Passive Immunity

Inherited natural immunity: inherited

by individual through the placenta or
mothers milk.

Active natural immunity

Active natural
acquired
immunity:
acquired after a
person recovers
from an infection.
Eg; measles or
chickenpox.

Natural active immunity

Active artificial immunity

Active artificial
acquired immunity:
Eg; vaccine (contains
killed or weakened
antigens).
Active because the
a/bodies produced by the
body itself
Artificial because it is
obtained through
vaccination.
the process is known
as immunisation.

Artificial active
immunity

Passive immunity
1.

2.

Passive natural immunity: when

a/bodies from the mother transported
across the placenta to the foetus. Lasts
for a few months.
Passive artificial immunity: injecting
serum containing a specific a/bodies
prepared from human/animals blood.

Passive artificial immunity

Usually used to treat

patient with serious
ill. Eg: rabies,
tetanus or snake
bites
Give temporary
immunity.

Difference between passive and

active immunity

Assignment 1.6
1.

2.

Describe the process of phagocytosis.

Drawing will help you to get marks. (10
marks)
Name and give examples of various
types of immunity. (10 marks)

Artificial passive immunity

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

- Effects on the bodys defence mechanism

AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) is

caused by HIV.
HIV infects the helper T-cells (important to activate
other lymphocytes in the bodys defence
mechanisms against disease).
Once infected, it takes a long incubation period
before the symptoms appear.
A persons immune system gradually decrease in
function and tend to get infected by secondary
infection such as pneumonia, meningitis and fungal
diseases.
He/she may develop a cancer. Eg: Kaposis sarcoma

HI
V

Kaposis sarcoma

Transmission of HIV
There are several possible ways in which the virus can
enter.
1. Having sex with an infected partner
2. Injection-drug users who share needles or syringes
that are contaminated with blood from an infected
person.
3. Women can transmit HIV to their babies during
pregnancy or birth, when infected maternal cells
enter the baby's circulation, or through breastfeeding.
4. HIV can be spread in health-care settings through
accidental needle sticks or contact with contaminated
fluids.

Transmission of HIV
5.

6.

Transfusion of contaminated blood or

blood components.
The virus does not spread through
casual contact such as preparing food,
sharing towels and bedding, or via
swimming pools, telephones, or toilet
seats. The virus is also unlikely to be
spread by contact with saliva, unless it
is contaminated with blood.

Ways to prevent the spread of AIDS

Abstain from sex.

Use a condom in other situations.
Do not share needles or inject illicit drugs.
If you work in a health-care field, follow
recommended guidelines for protecting
yourself against needle sticks and exposure
to contaminated fluids.
If you have engaged in risky behaviors, get
tested to see if you have HIV.
Strict screening of blood before transfusion.
Awareness campaign and counseling.

Appreciating a healthy cardiovascular

system
1.6

Learning outcomes..

At the end of lesson, you should be able

to:

Select and practice suitable ways to

maintain a healthy cardiovascular system.

Risk factors for cardiovascular diseases

(CVD)
Cardiovascular diseases share risk factors with
other major diseases.
Tobacco smoking
Poor diet and nutrition
Physical inactivity
Overweight and obesity
High blood pressure
High blood cholesterol
Diabetes
High alcohol consumption

Atherosclerosis

How to take care of healthy

cardiovascular system?

Follow a well-balanced diet that is low in

saturated fats, cholesterol and salt.
Maintain a healthy weight to reduce stress on the
heart, blood vessels, and lymph vessels.
Participate in regular aerobic exercise for at least
30 minutes three to four times per week.
Avoid the use of tobacco products and exposure
to secondhand tobacco smoke.
Avoid illegal drugs including stimulants,
marijuana and ecstasy.