Strain Gages: Log Log Log

Strain Gages
Electrical resistance in material changes when the material is deformed
R
A
R Resistance
Resistivity
l Length
A Cross-sectional area
log R log log A

Taking the differential
dR d d A
A
For linear deformations
R
Ss
R
Change in resistance is
from change in shape as
well as change in
resistivity
strain
Ss sensitivity or gage factor
(2-6 for metals and 40 200 for
semiconductor)
The change in resistance is measured using an electrical circuit

Many variables can be measured displacement, acceleration, pressure,
temperature, liquid level, stress, force and torque
Some variables (stress, force, torque) can be determined by measuring the strain
directly
Other variables can be measured by converting the measurand into stress using a
front-end device
Housing
Output
vo
Strain
Gage
m
Seismic
Mass
Strain Member
Cantilever
Base
Mounting
Threads
Strain gage accelerometer
Direction of
Sensitivity
(Acceleration)
Strain gages are manufactured as metallic foil (copper-nickel alloy constantan)

Direction of
Sensitivity
Foil
Grid
Single Element
Two-Element Rosette
Backing
Film
Solder Tabs
(For Leads)
Three-Element Rosettes
Semiconductor (silicon with impurity)

Doped Silicon
Crystal
(P or N Type)
Phenolic
Glass
Backing
Plate
Welded
Gold Leads
Nickle-Plated
Copper Ribbons
Potentiometer or Ballast Circuit

+
vo
Output
Strain Gage
vref
(Supply
)
R
Rc
R
vo
vref
R Rc
Ambient temperature changes will introduce error

Variations in supply voltage will affect the output
Electrical loading effect will be significant
Change in voltage due to strain is a very small percentage of the output
Question: Show that errors due to ambient temperature changes will cancel if the
temperature coefficients of R and Rc are the same
Wheatstone Bridge Circuit

A
Small i
R1
R2
RL
R4
R3
vo
Load
(High)
vref
(Constant Voltage)
vo
R1vref
(R1 R2 )
R3vref
(R3 R4 )
(R1 R4 R2 R3 )
vref
(R1 R2 )(R3 R4 )
When the bridge is balanced
R1 R3
R2 R4
True for
any RL
Null Balance Method

When the stain gage in the bridge deforms, the balance is upset.
Balance is restored by changing a variable resistor
The amount of change corresponds to the change in stain
Time consuming servo balancing can be used
Direct Measurement of Output Voltage

Measure the output voltage resulting from the imbalance
Determine the calibration constant
Bridge sensitivity
v o R2 R1 R1R2 R4 R3 R3 R4
2
v ref
R1 R2
R3 R4 2
To compensate for temperature changes, temperature coefficients of adjacent pairs
should be the same
The Bridge Constant

More than one resistor in the bridge can be active
If all four resistors are active, best sensitivity can be obtained
R1 and R4 in tension and R2 and R3 in compression gives the largest
sensitivity
The bridge sensitivity can be expressed as
vo
R
k
vref
4R
Bridge Constant k
bridge output in the general case

bridge output if only one strain gage is active
Example 4.4
A strain gage load cell (force sensor) consists of four identical strain gages, forming
a Wheatstone bridge, that are mounted on a rod that has square cross-section.
One opposite pair of strain gages is mounted axially and the other pair is mounted
in the transverse direction, as shown below. To maximize the bridge
sensitivity, the strain gages are connected to the bridge as shown. Determine
the bridge constant k in terms of Poissons ratio v of the rod material.
Axial
Gage
1
2
3
Cross Section
Of Sensing
Member
+
vo
Transverse
Gage
Transverse strain = (-v) x longitudinal strain
vref
Calibration Constant
v o
C
v ref
R
Ss
R
k
C Ss
4
vo
R
k
vref
4R
k Bridge Constant
Ss Sensitivity or gage factor
Example 4.5
A schematic diagram of a strain gage accelerometer is shown below. A point mass
of weight W is used as the acceleration sensing element, and a light cantilever with
rectangular cross-section, mounted inside the accelerometer casing, converts
the inertia force of the mass into a strain. The maximum bending strain at the root of
the cantilever is measured using four identical active semiconductor strain
gages. Two of the strain gages (A and B) are mounted axially on the top surface of
the cantilever, and the remaining two (C and D) are mounted on the bottom
surface. In order to maximize the sensitivity of the accelerometer, indicate the
manner in which the four strain gages A, B, C, and D should be connected to a
Wheatstone bridge circuit. What is the bridge constant of the resulting circuit?
A
Strain Gages
A, B
C
+
vo
C, D
l
b
h
A
B
C
D
vref
Obtain an expression relating applied acceleration a (in units of g) to bridge output

(bridge balanced at zero acceleration) in terms of the following parameters:
W = Mg = weight of the seismic mass at the free end of the cantilever element
E = Youngs modulus of the cantilever
l = length of the cantilever
b = cross-section width of the cantilever
h = cross-section height of the cantilever
Ss = gage factor (sensitivity) of each strain gage
vref = supply voltage to the bridge.
If M = 5 gm, E = 5x1010 N/m2, l = 1 cm, b = 1 mm, h = 0.5 mm, Ss = 200, and vref =
20 V, determine the sensitivity of the accelerometer in mV/g.
If the yield strength of the cantilever element is 5xl07 N/m2, what is the maximum
acceleration that could be measured using the accelerometer?
If the ADC which reads the strain signal into a process computer has the range 0 to
10 V, how much amplification (bridge amplifier gain) would be needed at the bridge
output so that this maximum acceleration corresponds to the upper limit of the ADC
(10 V)?
Is the cross-sensitivity (i.e., the sensitivity in the two directions orthogonal to the
direction of sensitivity small with this arrangement? Explain.
Hint: For a cantilever subjected to force F at the free end, the maximum stress
at the root is given by 6 F
2
bh
MEMS Accelerometer
Signal Conditioning
Mechanical Structure
Applications: Airbag Deployment
Data Acquisition
Dynamic
Strain
AC
Bridge
Amplifier
Oscillator
Power Supply
Demodulator
And Filter
Calibration
Constant
Supply frequency ~ 1kHz

Output Voltage ~ few micro volts 1 mV
Advantages Stability (less drift), low power consumption
Foil gages - 50 k
Power consumption decreases with resistance
Resolutions on the order of 1 m/m
Strain
Reading
Semiconductor Strain Gages

Conductor
Ribbons
Single Crystal of
Semiconductor
Gold Leads
Phenolic Glass
Backing Plate
Gage factor 40 200

Resitivity is higher reduced power consumption
Resistance 5k
Smaller and lighter
Properties of common strain gage

material
Material
Composition
Gage Factor
(Sensitivity)
Temperature
Coefficient of
Resistance (10-6/C)
Constantan
45% Ni, 55% Cu
2.0
15
Isoelastic
36% Ni, 52% Fe, 8%

Cr, 4% (Mn, Si, Mo)
3.5
200
Karma
74% Ni, 20% Cr, 3%

Fe, 3% Al
2.3
20
Monel
67% Ni, 33% Cu
1.9
2000
Silicon
p-type
100 to 170
70 to 700
Silicon
n-type
-140 to 100
70 to 700
Disadvantages of Semiconductor Strain Gages

The strain-resistance relationship is nonlinear
They are brittle and difficult to mount on curved surfaces.
The maximum strain that can be measured is an order of magnitude smaller
0.003 m/m (typically, less than 0.01 m/m)
They are more costly
They have a much larger temperature sensitivity.
Resistance
Change
R
R
Resistance
Change
P-type
R
R 0.4
0.4
= 1 Microstrain
= Strain of 110-6
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.1
3
1
0.1
N-type
Strain
3 103
1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.3
3 103
Strain
For semiconductor strain gages
R
S1 S2 2
R
S1 linear sensitivity
Positive for p-type gages
Negative for n-type gages
Magnitude is larger for p-type
S2 nonlinearity
Positive for both types
Magnitude is smaller for p-type
Linear Approximation
R
R
Change in
Resistance
R
R
Quadratic
Curve
max
0
Linear
Approximation
max
Strain
Error e
Ss
R R
R R
S1 S2 2 Ss
S1 S s S2 2
Quadratic Error
J
0.
Minimize Error
Ss
max
max
(2 ) S1 S s S 2 2 d = 0
S1 S s
max
e d
max
S1 Ss S2
max
max
Maximum Error
e max S2 2max
2 2
Range change in resistance
R
S1 max S2 2max S1 max S2 2max
R
2 S1 max
Percentage nonlinearity error

2
S 2 max
max error
Np
100%
100%
range
2 S1 max
N p 50 S 2 max S1 %
Temperature coefficients (per F)
Temperature Compensation
= Temperature Coefficient of Resistance
= Temperature Coefficient of Gage Factor
Compensation
Feasible
()
Compensation
Not Feasible
Compensation
Feasible
0
Concentration of Trace Material (Atoms/cc)
Sensitivity
change due to
temperature
R Ro 1 .T
S s Sso 1 .T
Resistance
change due to
temperature
Self Compensation with a Resistor
R1
R2
+
vo
R4
R3
vi
vi
+
Compensating
Resistor
Rc
vref
vi
R
vref
R Rc
v o
kSs
R
v ref R Rc 4
Possible only for certain ranges
vref
+
Rc
For self compensation the output after the

temperature change must be the same
Ro 1 .T
Ro
S so
S so 1 .T
R
o c
Ro 1 .T Rc
Ro Rc ( ) Ro Rc T

Rc
Ro

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Strain Gages

Electrical resistance in material changes when the material is deformed

log R log log A

The change in resistance is measured using an electrical circuit

Strain gage accelerometer

Strain gages are manufactured as metallic foil (copper-nickel alloy constantan)

Semiconductor (silicon with impurity)

Potentiometer or Ballast Circuit

Ambient temperature changes will introduce error

Wheatstone Bridge Circuit

When the bridge is balanced

Null Balance Method

Direct Measurement of Output Voltage

The Bridge Constant

bridge output in the general case

Transverse strain = (-v) x longitudinal strain

Obtain an expression relating applied acceleration a (in units of g) to bridge output

Applications: Airbag Deployment

Supply frequency ~ 1kHz

Semiconductor Strain Gages

Gage factor 40 200

Properties of common strain gage

45% Ni, 55% Cu

36% Ni, 52% Fe, 8%

74% Ni, 20% Cr, 3%

67% Ni, 33% Cu

Disadvantages of Semiconductor Strain Gages

For semiconductor strain gages

Range change in resistance

Percentage nonlinearity error

Temperature coefficients (per F)

Self Compensation with a Resistor

For self compensation the output after the

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