AER 101 Introduction to Aeronautics

Instructor : Prof. Dr. Galal Bahgat Salem

Textbook : John D. Anderson, Jr,
Introduction to Flight , 4th Edition ,
.2000
Term Work : 25 +25 = 50 Marks
Final Exam: 50 +50 = 100 Marks

Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

AER 101 A Introduction to Aeronautics ( 2 + 1 )

History of Flight
Nature of Aerodynamic Forces
Airplane components and Configurations
Scope of Aeronautical Engineering
Fluid Properties and Characteristics
Atmosphere
Basic Aerodynamics : Kinematics, Continuity and
Bernoullis Equations, Boundary Layer Concept, Skin
Friction, Pressure Drag, Flow Separation, Streamlining

Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

AER 101B Introduction to Aeronautics ( 2 + 1 )

Geometric and Aerodynamic Characteristics of Airfoils
Dimensional Analysis and Aerodynamic Force
Coefficients
Elements of Airplane Performance: Drag-Speed Curve,
Cruising Flight Performance, Climbing Performance,
Gliding Performance
Elements of Propulsion: Propellers, Piston Engines,
Reaction Principle, Jet Engines, Rocket Motors
Elements of Airplane Stability and Control

Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

Chapter 1

History Of Flight
What is Flight ?
Flight is a motion in air free from ground
topography
It is a high-speed motion through a lowresistance ( low density ) medium which is air
N.B. Compare flight in air, having a density of
1.225 Kg/m3, with shipping in water of density
1000 Kg/m3

Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

Short History of Flight

1. Imitating Birds
People attempting to fly by using artificial wings
strapped to their arms and-or legs
The flapping of wings generate lift
The Greek myth of Daedalus and his son Icarus
imprisoned on the island of Crete in the
Mediterranean Sea illustrates mans flight
The idea of strapping a pair of wings to arms fell
out of favor
It was replaced by concept of wings flapped up
and down by various mechanical devices,
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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

Powered by human arm, leg, or body movement

These are called Ornithopters
Ornithopters first designed by Leonardo da
Vinci ( 1452-1519 )

Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

Leonardo da Vinci

Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

Why Dont Ornithopters Work?

G. A. Borelli (1680 ) realized the fact that

( power/weight) ratio of a man is much
less than that of bird
Hence man will never be able to fly like a
bird, by his own power only
2. Lighter-than-Air Balloons[Unpowered Flight]
Firstly hot air balloons discovered by the
Montgolfier Brothers in France (1783)

Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

 Later on gas balloons of Hydrogen/Helium were

used by Charles
Charles found that ballooning is based on
Archimedes principle of buoyancy

Unmanned Balloon

Manned Balloon

Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

3. Lighter-than-Air Dirigibles (Airships)[Powered]

Firstly invented by Count von Zeppelin in
Germany (1900)
They are more rigid (the first airframe) than
balloons, controlled and directed (using
stabilizing surfaces) and propeller droved
Large bags of gas inside the rigid airframe
Count von Zeppelin (1929), flew around the world
in 21 days
Hydrogen fired in Hindenburg dirigible in 1937

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

4.Sir George Cayley (1799)

First pioneered the concept for the modern airplane
configuration in 1799
- Fixed wings, tail, fuselage
- Separate mechanism for propulsion
separation of lift and propulsion
Recognized that the function of thrust was to overcome
aerodynamic drag
Drew the first lift-drag vector diagram in the history
N.B. Before this time flapping wings were supposed to
provide both lift and propulsion

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

Lift

Thrust

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Resultant Aerodynamic
Force

Drag

Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

5.Heavier-than-Air Unpowered Gliders (Sailplanes)

Gliders first designed and flew by Otto Lilienthal,
a German mechanical engineer, in 1891
Lilienthal is known as the gliders man
Gliders characterized by un-sustained flight

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

He died in 1896, after stalling a glider he was flying

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

6.Heavier-than-Air Powered Airplanes

Samuel P. Langley was contracted to build a flying
machine for the U.S. government
Began a series of aerodynamic experiments in 1887
Successful in flying several small scale, unmanned,
powered aircraft, which he called aerodromes
These were the first steam-powered, heavier-than-air
machines to successfully fly
Langleys attempt to build a manned aerodrome failed
Lunched and crashed on Oct. 7 and December 8, 1903

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

Langleys aerodrome shortly after launch

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

 The Wright Brothers

Wright brothers (Orville&Wilbur) were the
inventors of the first practical manned flight on
17 Dec.,1903 (Flyer I )
It was a strut-and-wire biplane configuration
Propulsion was achieved by a four-cylinder inline engine designed and built by Orville Wright
It produced close to 12 hp and weighed 140 Ibs
It drove two propellers via a bicycle-like chain
loop

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

 The control feature of Wright flyer is one of the basic

reasons for its success
Flyer I had a wing span of 12 m , flew a distance of 256
m, and lasting 59 sec

Wright Flyer Engine

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

Wright Flyer engine

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

 Hydrostatics of Lighter-than-Air Flight

The lifting force is the buoyancy force
The basic laws of hydrostatics (fluid at rest) are:
a- fluid pressure p is uniform in horizontal
planes, as well as the density
b- p varies only with height z according to the
z
Hydrostatic equation
datum

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

dp/dz = -g
Integrating, in case of constant density:
p + g z = constant
p
This is the hydrostatic equation
non-uniform
p distribution
on a body immersed
in a fluid at rest

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p+ g z

Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

 The resultant fluid-pressure force is called the

buoyancy force B, acting vertically upward, and
equals to the weight of the displaced fluid

B=gV

where density of fluid

g acceleration of gravity
V volume of immersed body
N.B. The basis of Heavier-than-air Flight will
discussed later

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

Anatomy OF THE AIRPLANE

The Main Components of the Airplane

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

 The basic airplane components include:

fuselage, wing, tail assembly, control surfaces,
landing gear, and power plant(s)
1.The Fuselage
It carries the payload.
It is the central structural member of the
airframe to which other members are attached.
It is generally streamlined to reduce drag.
Designs vary with the mission to be performed,
as illustrated in figure
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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

2.The Wing
It generates the lift force.
It includes the flaps for lift augmentation during
landing and takeoff, and ailerons for banking
the airplane during turning.
The wing cross-section is called Airfoil
The airfoil shape, wing planform shape, and
placement of the wing on the fuselage depend
upon the airplane mission.
The figure illustrates wing shapes and
placements
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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

3.Tail Assembly and Control Surfaces

The tail assembly (empennage) represents the
collection of structures at the rear of the airplane
The tail assembly consists of:
1- The vertical stabilizer (fin) and rudder which
provide directional stability in yaw
2-The horizontal stabilizer and elevator which
provide longitudinal stability in pitch
The figure illustrates different forms of tail
assembly
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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

4.Landing Gear
The landing gear (undercarriage) supports the
airplane while it is at rest on the ground and
during the takeoff and landing
The gear may be fixed or retractable
The wheels are attached to shock-absorbing
struts that use oil or air to cushion the blow of
landing
Special types of landing gear include skids for
snow and floats for water
For carrier landings, arrester hooks are used
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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

4.Power Plants
Power plants used to produce the thrust force
necessary to propel the airplane to overcome
the drag
The power plant consists of the engine (and
propeller, if present) and accessories
The main engine types are:
-Reciprocating (or piston type)
-Reaction engines such as turbojet, turbofan,
turboprop, ram jet, pulse jet, and rocket engine
The figure shows several some of engine
placements
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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

The Aircraft Structure

The figure shows a cutaway drawing of an
aircraft structure

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

Basic Elements of Aircraft Structure

The wing

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

 Wing structure basically same in all aircraft

types
Modern aircrafts have all metal and composite
material wings but many older had wood and
fabric wings
The wing is a framework composed of spars,
ribs and (possibly) stringers (see figure)
Spars are the main members of the wing. They
extended lengthwise of the wing (crosswise of
fuselage)
Most wing structures have two spars, the front
spar and the rear spar
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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

 Front spar near the leading edge, while

the rear spar at about two-thirds the
distance to the trailing edge
The ribs are the parts of the wing which
support the covering and provide the airfoil
shape
A skin covers the wing framework

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

The Fuselage

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

 The fuselage structural elements are:

1-Bulkheads, which form the cross-sectional
shape of the fuselage
2-Longerons, which are heavy strips that run
the length of the fuselage and are attached to
the outer edge of the bulkheads
3-Fuselage skin, which is attached to the
longerons
N.B. Keelson is a strong beam placed at the
bottom of the fuselage. The keelson is frequently
used in military fighter aircrafts
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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

 Aerodynamic Basis of Heavier-than-Air Flight

This is the real flight
It needs a lifting force to balance the weight;
since the buoyancy force is not sufficient
The source of the lifting force is the fact that
when a fluid is in motion, its pressure varies not
only with height, as in the case of rest, but also
with its velocity
The relation between p, V, and z is expressed by
Bernoulli equation (1738) :

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

p + (1/2) V2 + gz = constant
Where

static pressure

(1/2) V2

dynamic pressure

gz
head pressure

The shape of an airplane-wing cross section

(known as aerofoil or airfoil) was evolved from
the Venturi tube, as shown :

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

 When a fluid flows over a body (or a surface), or

when a body is forced to move through a fluid,
the fluid velocity relative to the body surface may
be increased or decreased (depending on
surface shape and altitude)
And consequently the fluid pressure p may
decrease or increase according to Bernoullis
equation
The resultant will be a net fluid force F acting
on the body which is completely different than
the Buoyancy force (and may be many times
greater than it)
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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

?How does an Airplane fly

The key to the generation of lift is the speciallydesigned streamlined body, called the wing,
and characterized by a special cross-section,
called airfoil
When the wing is propelled through air at a
suitable angle of attack, and with a relativelyhigh speed, the air flowing around its surface is
accelerated and/or decelerated according to
Bernoullis equation
The integration of the air-pressure distribution
over the surface of the wing results in a resultant
aerodynamic force F
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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

 The component of R perpendicular to flight

direction (direction of relative motion) is called
the Lift L
The component of R opposite to flight direction
is called drag D

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

Forces on an Airplane
Basically, the four forces acting on an airplane are
weight, thrust, lift, and drag

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

 Weight: The weight includes the airplane itself,

the payload, and the fuel. Since the fuel is
consumed as the airplane flies, the weight
decreases. Weight acts in a direction towards
the center of the Earth.
Thrust: The driving force of whatever propulsive
system is used, engine driven propeller, jet
engine, rocket engine, and so forth, is the thrust.
It may be taken to act along the longitudinal axis
of the airplane.
Lift: This force is generated by the flow of air
around the airplane, the major portion resulting
from the wing. It represents the component of
the resultant aerodynamic force normal to the
66 flight direction. Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem
Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

 Drag: This force arises from the flow of air

around the airplane and is the component of the
resultant aerodynamic force opposite to the flight
direction
For un-accelerated (Steady) level flight:

L=W
T=D

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

Scope of Aerospace Engineering

Aerospace engineering means airplane, missiles
(Rockets), and satellite design, manufacturing,
testing, maintaining, repairing, overhauling, and
performance analysis
The Main Topics A.E. are:
(1) Aerodynamics
(2) Airframe Design
(3) Propulsion
(4) Flight Mechanics & Control
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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

 The Associated Topics are:

Flight navigation
Electronics ( + Flight navigation = Avionics )
Meteorology
Metallurgy
Production Engineering
Fluid-power engineering (pneumatic,
hydraulic, pressurization, and air-conditioning
systems)
Instrumentation
Chemical & fuel engineering
Flight regulations & Airworthiness
69

Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

 The Associated Topics are:

Flight navigation
Electronics ( + Flight navigation = Avionics )
Meteorology
Metallurgy
Production Engineering
Fluid-power engineering (pneumatic,
hydraulic, pressurization, and air-conditioning
systems)
Instrumentation
Chemical & fuel engineering
Flight regulations & Airworthiness
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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

Aerodynamics
Aerodynamic design of the flight vehicle/space
vehicle for:
Maximum lift production
Minimum drag
Max. available space for structure and payload
Determination of the aerodynamic forces on the
designed configuration at the different flight
conditions (speed, attitude, and a altitude)
Wind-tunnel testing
Flight testing
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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

Propulsion
Power-plant design & construction for:
Max. thrust/weight of engine
Max. thrust/drag of engine
Min. specific fuel consumption (sfc)
Good performance at different altitudes and
speeds of flight
Power-plant manufacturing
Power-plant testing
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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

Airframe Design
Structural analysis
Airframe design & construction for:
sufficient strength and with less weight

Airframe manufacturing techniques

Airframe testing techniques

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni

Flight Mechanics & Control

Stabilizing and control surfaces design
Control surfaces operation and
performance
Aircraft stability analysis
Maneuverability considerations
Airplane systems and instrumentation

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Prof. Galal Bahgat Salem

Aerospace Dept., Cairo Uni